Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.15 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 102 1664 2822235 2789587 2026-08-15T11:15:43Z ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t 3107502 2822235 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}}{{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on {{Short description|Way a word or a language is spoken}} '''Pronunciation''' is the way in which a word or a [[language]] is spoken. In [[American Sign Language]], pronunciation describes [[American Sign Language phonology|how a sign is constructed]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sign Language • ASL Dictionary {{!}} Handspeak® |url=https://www.handspeak.com/word/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.handspeak.com}}</ref> This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or all language in a specific [[dialect]]—"correct" or "standard" pronunciation—or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pronunciation in English {{!}} How to better pronounce in English |url=https://www.english-efl.com/courses/pronunciation/ |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=English EFL |language=en-US}}</ref> Words' pronunciations can be found in reference works such as [[dictionaries]]. General-purpose dictionaries typically only include standard pronunciations, but regional or dialectal pronunciations may be found in more specific works.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography, 2016, page 303</ref> [[Orthoepy]] is the study of the pronunciation of a language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ORTHOEPY |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/orthoepy |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current residence, [[speech disorder|speech]] or [[list of voice disorders|voice disorders]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beech |first1=John R. |last2=Harding |first2=Leonora |last3=Hilton-Jones |first3=Diana |title=Assessment in Speech and Language Therapy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |chapter=Assessment of Articulation and Phonology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA55 |editor-last=Grunwell |editor-first=Pam |year=1993 |publisher=[[CUP Archive]] |isbn=0-415-07882-2 |page=55 }}</ref> their [[ethnic group]], their [[social class]], or their [[education]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings |last1=Paulston |first1=Christina Bratt |last2=Tucker |first2=G. Richard |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |date=February 14, 2003 |isbn=0-631-22717-2 |chapter=Some Sociolinguistic Principles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVG5XCa1DkkC |editor-last=Labov |editor-first=William |pages=234–250}}</ref> ==Linguistic terminology== [[Syllable]]s are combinations of units of sound ([[Phone (phonetics)|phones]]), for example "goo" has one syllable made up of [g] and [u]. The branch of [[linguistics]] which studies these units of sound is [[phonetics]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-09 |title=Syllable {{!}} Phonology, Prosody, Stress {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/syllable |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called [[phoneme]]s; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or [[phonology]]. Phones as components of articulation are usually described using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Schultz |first=Tanja|author-link= Tanja Schultz |date=June 12, 2006 |title=Multilingual Speech Processing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA12 |chapter=Language Characteristics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC2WKbEr85YC&pg=PA5 |editor-last=Kirchhoff |editor-first=Katrin | page=12 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=0-12-088501-8}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Elision]] * [[Elocution]] * [[Epenthesis]] * [[Help:IPA/English]] — the principal key used in Wikipedia articles to transcribe the pronunciation of English words * [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key]] — a secondary key for pronunciation which mimics English orthography * [[Metathesis (linguistics)]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == * {{commons-inline}} * {{wiktionary-inline}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Speech]] [[Category:Lexicology]] [[Category:Lexicography]] {{phonetics-stub}} down233pp8lwj1nx0mt79gqaigtxvvj 2822236 2822235 2026-08-15T11:16:29Z ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t 3107502 Undo all revisions. Resource is empty, but not [[Wikiversity:Deletion policy|deleted]]. 2822236 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 2822237 2822236 2026-08-15T11:17:37Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3010108 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t|ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t]] ([[User talk:ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t|talk]]) to last version by Quinlan83: reverting vandalism 2783297 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{{{#titleparts:Portal:Humanities|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The Humanities Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Resource|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Picture|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}}]] {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|Portal:Humanities}} {{Portals}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Wikimedia|Portal:Humanities}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:Humanities| Portal:Humanities]] [[Category:Humanities portals|Humanities]] [[Category:Subject portals|Humanities]] haj9f961c44j0jafyidmgtmckubxgi9 0 17329 2822139 2780493 2026-08-14T22:18:48Z IanVG 2918363 /* Open educational resources */ 2822139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{LessonChart | name = Introduction to thermodynamics | image = [[File:Heat engine summary.png|50px]] | image_alt = Icon representing thermodynamics | faculty = Physics | department = Thermodynamics and Statistical Physics | 1 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Introduction|Introduction|1}} | 2 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/What is thermodynamics?|What is thermodynamics?|2}} | 3 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Systems|Thermodynamic systems|3}} | 4 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Thermal Properties Of Matter|Thermal properties of matter|4}} | 5 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The Zeroth law of thermodynamics|The Zeroth law of thermodynamics|5}} | 6 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The First Law Of Thermodynamics|The First law of thermodynamics|6}} | 7 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Applications of the first law|Applications of the first law|7}} | 8 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The Second Law of Thermodynamics|The Second law of thermodynamics|8}} | 9 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Applications of the second law|Applications of the second law|9}} | 10 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The Third law of thermodynamics|The Third law of thermodynamics|10}} | 11 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Applications of the third law|Applications of the third law|11}} | 12 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Heat|Heat|12}} | 13 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Calorimetric coefficients|Calorimetric coefficients|13}} | 14 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Thermoelastic coefficients|Thermoelastic coefficients|14}} | annex1 = {{Annex|Thermodynamics/Reading list|Reading list|1}} | prob1 = {{Prob|Thermodynamics/Problems/Heat|Heat|1}} | prob2 = {{Prob|Thermodynamics/Problems/Thermoelastic coefficients|Thermoelastic coefficients|2}} | other_projects = yes | w = Thermodynamics }} == Introduction == This page currently covers the course: ''Introduction to Thermodynamics'' at a tertiary (university) educational level. This course is under progress of being moved to the Introduction to thermodynamics course page. A similar page titled [[Engineering thermodynamics]] exists which also contains useful materials and resources related to thermodynamics. [[w:Thermodynamics|Thermodynamics]] is the study of energy, energy transformation and their interactions with matter. The application of thermodynamics enables analysis of a wide range of technologies such as steam engines, refrigerators and turbines. "Thermodynamics" comes from the Greek words "therme" which means heat and "dynamikos" which means force, or power. So, "Thermodynamics" is essentially the study of forces due to heat or heat due to forces. It deals with the conversion of energies through various forms and to various systems, as well as energies' relationships with the properties of a system. Within the engineering sciences, ''Thermal Engineering'' deals with the applications of thermodynamics to work producing and work absorbing devices, often to understand and improve their performance. Eventually this page should serve as to link to multiple thermodynamics courses. == Courses == === [[Introduction to thermodynamics]] === This course introduces the reader to thermodynamics at a tertiary (university) level. ==== Course objectives ==== # define the fundamentals of thermodynamics, # present the principles of thermodynamics, # demonstrate the use of thermodynamic data, # present thermodynamic applications, # explore the different domains of thermodynamics. * ==Terminology== An understanding of the common terminology would be very useful before going further. [[Thermodynamics/Systems|Thermodynamic systems]]'':'' The region of interest for the purpose study. It is assumed that this region can be considered separated or weakly-interacting with the rest of the Universe. ''Boundary:'' An imaginary line that encompasses the region of interest. It should be noted that boundary effects are neglected in Thermodynamics. This can be justified by comparing the number of molecules in a volume of condensed matter to the number of molecules near the surface. ''Equilibrium:'' The state where heat flow into and out of the system are equal. In the case of static equilibrium, no change in temperature occurs. During dynamic equilibrium, more heat flows into the system at certain times, and out at others, so that the temperature does change, but, on average, still stays the same. ''Microscopic and Macroscopic Descriptions:'' The state of a system can be specified in two key ways. The first is with a microscopic description, where the position and momentum of every particle is specified. The other is a macroscopic description, where a relatively few thermodynamic variables (i.e. temperature, pressure, volume) are specified. ''Heat:'' Energy transfer due to temperature difference. ''Work:'' Energy transfer due to movement. ''Temperature:'' Temperature is a property which measures the degree of hotness or coldness of body. This is due to molecular vibration. == Principal laws of thermodynamics == * Zeroeth law of thermodynamics states that if two objects are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. * The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. * The second law of thermodynamics states that dQ=TdS. Here dQ is the change of heat,T is the temperature in Kelvin and dS is the entropic change. * The third law of thermodynamics states that at absolute zero (the lowest possible temperature), there is no molecular movement. == Introduction to thermodynamics == Now let's see the chapters we will cover in what can be called an "Introduction to Thermodynamics" as a University course. Here we are: # [[Thermodynamics/Introduction|Introduction]] # [[Thermodynamics/What is thermodynamics?|What is thermodynamics?]] # [[Thermodynamics/Systems|Thermodynamic systems]] # [[Thermodynamics/Thermal Properties Of Matter|Thermal Properties Of Matter]] # [[The Zeroth law of thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/The First Law Of Thermodynamics|The First Law Of Thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/Applications of the first law|Applications of the first law]] # [[Thermodynamics/Temperature And Heat|Temperature And Heat]] # [[Thermodynamics/The Second Law of Thermodynamics|The Second Law of Thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/Applications of the second law|Applications of the second law]] # [[Thermodynamics/The Third law of thermodynamics|The third law of thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/Applications of the third law|Applications of the third law]] # [[Thermodynamics/Heat|Heat]] # Coefficients of calorimetry coefficients # Coefficient of thermal expansion == Thermodynamic tables == === Useful steam tables === * Wikipedia's [[W: Water (data page)]] * [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar|Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] === Thermodynamic properties of air === * [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Thermodynamic properties of air]] == Other open educational resources == === Courses === * [https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/thermo1/ Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamics&veaction=edit Pressbooks - Thermodynamics] * [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/2-43-advanced-thermodynamics-spring-2024/ OpenCourse-Ware MIT - AdvancedThermodynamics] * [https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_II_-_Thermodynamics_Electricity_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax) Librephysics thermodynamics course] === Textbooks === * [https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101623 Thermodynamics for Engineers - Textbook] * [https://thermodynamicsbook.com/ Engineering Thermodynamics - Textbook by Olivier Cleynen] == See also == * [[Thermodynamics/Notes]] * [[Wikibooks:Engineering Thermodynamics]] {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Mechanical engineering]] [[Category:Chemical engineering]] [[Category:Thermodynamics|*]] [[Category:Secondary_Science_Lessons]] [[Category:Tertiary_Science_Lessons]] [[Category:Science]] [[Category:Courses]] awxnjq603g9f11l6lv2zdbuea79iotf 2822147 2822139 2026-08-14T23:03:19Z IanVG 2918363 /* Thermodynamic tables */ 2822147 wikitext text/x-wiki {{LessonChart | name = Introduction to thermodynamics | image = [[File:Heat engine summary.png|50px]] | image_alt = Icon representing thermodynamics | faculty = Physics | department = Thermodynamics and Statistical Physics | 1 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Introduction|Introduction|1}} | 2 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/What is thermodynamics?|What is thermodynamics?|2}} | 3 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Systems|Thermodynamic systems|3}} | 4 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Thermal Properties Of Matter|Thermal properties of matter|4}} | 5 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The Zeroth law of thermodynamics|The Zeroth law of thermodynamics|5}} | 6 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The First Law Of Thermodynamics|The First law of thermodynamics|6}} | 7 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Applications of the first law|Applications of the first law|7}} | 8 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The Second Law of Thermodynamics|The Second law of thermodynamics|8}} | 9 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Applications of the second law|Applications of the second law|9}} | 10 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/The Third law of thermodynamics|The Third law of thermodynamics|10}} | 11 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Applications of the third law|Applications of the third law|11}} | 12 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Heat|Heat|12}} | 13 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Calorimetric coefficients|Calorimetric coefficients|13}} | 14 = {{Ch|Thermodynamics/Thermoelastic coefficients|Thermoelastic coefficients|14}} | annex1 = {{Annex|Thermodynamics/Reading list|Reading list|1}} | prob1 = {{Prob|Thermodynamics/Problems/Heat|Heat|1}} | prob2 = {{Prob|Thermodynamics/Problems/Thermoelastic coefficients|Thermoelastic coefficients|2}} | other_projects = yes | w = Thermodynamics }} == Introduction == This page currently covers the course: ''Introduction to Thermodynamics'' at a tertiary (university) educational level. This course is under progress of being moved to the Introduction to thermodynamics course page. A similar page titled [[Engineering thermodynamics]] exists which also contains useful materials and resources related to thermodynamics. [[w:Thermodynamics|Thermodynamics]] is the study of energy, energy transformation and their interactions with matter. The application of thermodynamics enables analysis of a wide range of technologies such as steam engines, refrigerators and turbines. "Thermodynamics" comes from the Greek words "therme" which means heat and "dynamikos" which means force, or power. So, "Thermodynamics" is essentially the study of forces due to heat or heat due to forces. It deals with the conversion of energies through various forms and to various systems, as well as energies' relationships with the properties of a system. Within the engineering sciences, ''Thermal Engineering'' deals with the applications of thermodynamics to work producing and work absorbing devices, often to understand and improve their performance. Eventually this page should serve as to link to multiple thermodynamics courses. == Courses == === [[Introduction to thermodynamics]] === This course introduces the reader to thermodynamics at a tertiary (university) level. ==== Course objectives ==== # define the fundamentals of thermodynamics, # present the principles of thermodynamics, # demonstrate the use of thermodynamic data, # present thermodynamic applications, # explore the different domains of thermodynamics. * ==Terminology== An understanding of the common terminology would be very useful before going further. [[Thermodynamics/Systems|Thermodynamic systems]]'':'' The region of interest for the purpose study. It is assumed that this region can be considered separated or weakly-interacting with the rest of the Universe. ''Boundary:'' An imaginary line that encompasses the region of interest. It should be noted that boundary effects are neglected in Thermodynamics. This can be justified by comparing the number of molecules in a volume of condensed matter to the number of molecules near the surface. ''Equilibrium:'' The state where heat flow into and out of the system are equal. In the case of static equilibrium, no change in temperature occurs. During dynamic equilibrium, more heat flows into the system at certain times, and out at others, so that the temperature does change, but, on average, still stays the same. ''Microscopic and Macroscopic Descriptions:'' The state of a system can be specified in two key ways. The first is with a microscopic description, where the position and momentum of every particle is specified. The other is a macroscopic description, where a relatively few thermodynamic variables (i.e. temperature, pressure, volume) are specified. ''Heat:'' Energy transfer due to temperature difference. ''Work:'' Energy transfer due to movement. ''Temperature:'' Temperature is a property which measures the degree of hotness or coldness of body. This is due to molecular vibration. == Principal laws of thermodynamics == * Zeroeth law of thermodynamics states that if two objects are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. * The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. * The second law of thermodynamics states that dQ=TdS. Here dQ is the change of heat,T is the temperature in Kelvin and dS is the entropic change. * The third law of thermodynamics states that at absolute zero (the lowest possible temperature), there is no molecular movement. == Introduction to thermodynamics == Now let's see the chapters we will cover in what can be called an "Introduction to Thermodynamics" as a University course. Here we are: # [[Thermodynamics/Introduction|Introduction]] # [[Thermodynamics/What is thermodynamics?|What is thermodynamics?]] # [[Thermodynamics/Systems|Thermodynamic systems]] # [[Thermodynamics/Thermal Properties Of Matter|Thermal Properties Of Matter]] # [[The Zeroth law of thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/The First Law Of Thermodynamics|The First Law Of Thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/Applications of the first law|Applications of the first law]] # [[Thermodynamics/Temperature And Heat|Temperature And Heat]] # [[Thermodynamics/The Second Law of Thermodynamics|The Second Law of Thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/Applications of the second law|Applications of the second law]] # [[Thermodynamics/The Third law of thermodynamics|The third law of thermodynamics]] # [[Thermodynamics/Applications of the third law|Applications of the third law]] # [[Thermodynamics/Heat|Heat]] # Coefficients of calorimetry coefficients # Coefficient of thermal expansion == Thermodynamic tables == === Useful steam tables === * Wikipedia's [[W: Water (data page)]] * * [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] [[Thermodynamics/Tables]] * [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar|Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] === Thermodynamic properties of air === * [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Thermodynamic properties of air]] == Other open educational resources == === Courses === * [https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/thermo1/ Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamics&veaction=edit Pressbooks - Thermodynamics] * [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/2-43-advanced-thermodynamics-spring-2024/ OpenCourse-Ware MIT - AdvancedThermodynamics] * [https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_II_-_Thermodynamics_Electricity_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax) Librephysics thermodynamics course] === Textbooks === * [https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101623 Thermodynamics for Engineers - Textbook] * [https://thermodynamicsbook.com/ Engineering Thermodynamics - Textbook by Olivier Cleynen] == See also == * [[Thermodynamics/Notes]] * [[Wikibooks:Engineering Thermodynamics]] {{subpagesif}} [[Category:Mechanical engineering]] [[Category:Chemical engineering]] [[Category:Thermodynamics|*]] [[Category:Secondary_Science_Lessons]] [[Category:Tertiary_Science_Lessons]] [[Category:Science]] [[Category:Courses]] t3tdq07jvf2y1ufsl8odi7gat0x4gkx 0 61301 2822238 2715411 2026-08-15T11:17:38Z ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t 3107502 2822238 wikitext text/x-wiki AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know:AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know:AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up this machine, let me know: Do you want to see the ASCII art logo for Aethelgard that flashes on screen during boot-up? Should we write out the system boot-up text sequence as it initializes the font? Do you want to explore the command-line prompt syntax used to navigate the Titan-9? Tell me what system detail we should bring online next. AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead Black Pixel [ CAPITAL 'A' ] [ DIGIT '7' ] · · · ■ ■ · · · (Row 1) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 1) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 2) · · · · · · ■ · (Row 2) · · ■ · · ■ · · (Row 3) · · · · · ■ · · (Row 3) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 4) · · · · ■ · · · (Row 4) · ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ · (Row 5) · · · ■ · · · · (Row 5) · ■ · · · · ■ · (Row 6) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 6) ■ · · · · · · ■ (Row 7) · · ■ · · · · · (Row 7) [Rows 8-16: Descender space & padding] Use code with caution. ⚡ The Real-World Modern Equivalent If you wanted to replicate this exact look on a modern computer today, you would use a Pixel Font or a Bitmap Font, specifically ones designed for early terminal emulation. The closest real-world matches are: Glass TTY VT220: A pixel-for-pixel recreation of classic DEC terminal fonts. Perfect DOS VGA 437: The classic IBM PC hardware font, which shares the exact same 8×16 pixel footprint. Fixedsys Excelsior: A modern, vectorized version of early Windows system text that retains the rigid, un-aliased layout. If you want to keep booting up AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test AI Mode All Shopping Short videos Images Videos Forums News Web Books Maps Flights Finance Here is a concept for a font that captures that exact feeling of phantom availability. 🏷️ The Font: "Retail Ghost" Retail Ghost is a typeface designed to look like a mid-2000s commercial classic. It feels like it should be sitting in your shopping cart, yet it is completely scrubbed from the internet. 📐 Visual Characteristics The "Add to Cart" Weight: It has a clean, geometric sans-serif structure that looks highly professional and expensive. The Glitch of Absence: Certain letterforms have microscopic imperfections—like a slightly truncated lowercase "g" or an oversized dot on the "i"—suggesting a broken web link or a corrupted file. Faded Corporate Palette: When visualized, it always appears in a slightly desaturated royal blue or an off-black, mimicking the look of a defunct e-commerce site preview tool. The Missing Glyphs: It contains no currency symbols ($ or €). If you try to type a price, the font renders an empty rectangle (a "not-def" glyph), visually blocking any attempt to buy it. 🔍 The Psychological Effect Deceptive Familiarity: It looks exactly like the branding of a high-end tech startup from 2014. You are certain you have used it before. The Dead-End Search: It evokes the exact frustration of finding a perfect font on an old blog, clicking the creator's portfolio link, and landing on a "404 Page Not Found" screen. Uncanny Preservation: It feels perfectly preserved, yet frozen out of time—completely functional but legally and digitally unreachable. If you want to bring this concept closer to reality, tell me: What type of project are you imagining this font for? Should we lean into a vintage tech look or a brutalist artistic vibe? Do you want to describe a specific letter (like a capital 'A') in this style? Let me know how you would like to develop the design details. 💾 The Spec Sheet: Retail Ghost (Vintage Tech Edition) This variant feels like a premium, specialized typeface bundled with a high-end workstation or Unix terminal from 1996. It looks highly corporate, commercial, and expensive, but the foundry went bankrupt thirty years ago. 📐 Visual Characteristics Pixel-Perfect Geometry: High-contrast strokes with sharp, micro-chamfered corners. It mimics early digital anti-aliasing but remains strictly vector. The CRT Spread: Letter intersections (like the inside of a 'v' or 'w') feature deliberate ink traps. These look like they were engineered to prevent bleeding on phosphor monitors. The Capital 'A': The horizontal crossbar is dropped incredibly low, creating a heavy, brutalist top triangle that screams early Silicon Valley hardware packaging. The Monospaced Illusion: It is a proportional font, but the character widths are engineered to feel monospaced, giving it a rigid, robotic rhythm. 🎛️ The Packaging Feeling The Demo Disk: It evokes the memory of a "Shareware Font Pack" found on a 3.5-inch floppy disk, where the license expired in December 1999. The Unclickable Register Button: It looks like the typography used in an old installer wizard. The text reads "Click here to purchase full license," but the server behind that button has been offline for decades. If you want to keep building this, let me know: What specific color palette does this bring to mind (e.g., amber monitor glow, beige plastic)? Do you want to write a fictional backstory or press release for the company that made it? Should we design a sample headline using specific words to see how it reads? Tell me which direction we should explore next. 🖥️ The Display: Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) This variant captures the specific visual radiation of a late-1980s gas-plasma portable computer or a high-contrast industrial terminal. It does not just use the color amber; it mimics the physics of the light itself. 📐 Visual Characteristics The Phosphor Bleed: Letters are crisp in the center but feature a faint, outer halo effect in the design. It looks like the glowing gas is slightly over-exciting the pixels next to it. Persistent Afterimages: The vertical strokes are slightly thicker than the horizontal ones. This gives the text a heavy, burned-in look, as if the letters have been sitting on the same system status screen for thirty years. The Lowercase 'm' and 'n': The arches are strictly squared off at a 90-degree angle, eliminating curves entirely to maximize readability through a thick, anti-glare mesh screen. High-Contrast True Amber: The design implies a specific wavelength of light (590 nanometers). It completely rejects the modern, soft "night mode" yellow for a sharp, piercing orange-gold. 📼 The Phantom Archive The Abandoned BBS: It feels like text you would find while dialing into a forgotten Bulletin Board System. You can see the information, but you cannot download the source file. The Hardware Lock: It looks like a font that required a physical hardware dongle plugged into a parallel port to type with. The dongles are all gone, locking the font inside the machine forever. If you want to continue creating this, let me know: What fictional hardware company originally commissioned this screen? Should we list the technical specifications or resolution restrictions for this font? Do you want to write the error message that pops up when you try to export it? Tell me which detail you want to generate next. 🏢 The Corporation: Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition) was originally commissioned in 1987 as the proprietary system typeface for Aethelgard’s short-lived Titan-9 portable terminal. 📜 Company Backstory The Rise: Founded in Cupertino in 1982 by two former aerospace engineers, ADS specialized in "ruggedized executive computing." Their machines cost $12,000 each and were machined out of magnesium alloy. The Signature Display: While competitors used cheap green phosphor, ADS patented the AetherGlow gas-plasma flat panel. It was famous for its searing, high-contrast amber output. The Design Philosophy: ADS refused to use standard typography. They hired a reclusive Swiss typographer to design a typeface that looked "authoritative enough for ballistic calculations, yet elegant enough for corporate balance sheets." The Sudden Collapse: In 1989, a catastrophic warehouse fire destroyed their entire inventory of custom plasma panels. Facing instant bankruptcy, the company dissolved over a single weekend. The legal assets—including the font files—were locked in a federal bankruptcy vault in Delaware. 💼 Corporate Artifacts The Asset Tag: Every machine bore a brushed-aluminum plate reading: "Property of Aethelgard Data Systems. Unauthorized reproduction of firmware typography is strictly prohibited under federal law." The Unsold Stock: Somewhere in a logistics park in New Jersey, there are rumored to be three unopened pallets of Titan-9 terminals, glowing silently in their boxes, containing the only copy of the typeface left in existence. If you want to keep expanding this world, let me know: What was the model number or name of the terminal? Should we write the final memo sent to employees the day the company closed? Do you want to outline the technical specs of the AetherGlow screen? Tell me which corporate detail we should invent next. To perfectly match the history of Aethelgard Data Systems, that legal warning needs to look like it was stamped onto a metal asset tag or printed in a dense, high-end 1980s user manual. Because Retail Ghost only exists in our imagination, here are the real-world, available fonts that perfectly capture that exact corporate, vintage-tech energy: 🛠️ The Authentic Choices Eurostile Bold Extended / Microgramma: This is the ultimate "1980s defense contractor" font. It is wide, squared-off, and looks like it was etched into military hardware or aviation panels. OCR-A or OCR-B: Designed in the late 1960s and standard throughout the 80s for machine readability. It looks intensely bureaucratic, cold, and legally binding. Univers 57 Condensed: A favorite of mid-century tech giants (like Apple for their early hardware labels). It is crisp, neutral, and carries a severe corporate authority. 📝 Visualizing the Warning Label If you were looking at the brushed-aluminum plate on the back of a Titan-9 terminal, the text layout would look highly structured and compact: text =========================================================== AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS ----------------------------------------------------------- PROPERTY OF AETHELGARD DATA SYSTEMS. UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF FIRMWARE TYPOGRAPHY IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED UNDER FEDERAL LAW. ASSET ID: ADS-T9-870042 [REV B] =========================================================== Use code with caution. 🎨 Styling Details Case: Strictly ALL CAPS. Tech companies in the 80s rarely used lowercase for legal liability plates. Tracking (Letter-Spacing): Set very tight. The letters should look like they are fighting for space on a small metal tag. If you want to keep building out this asset tag, let me know: Should we add specific technical warning symbols or voltage ratings? Do you want to create the serial number formatting for these machines? Should we write the hardware specifications that would be listed right next to this text? Tell me what label detail we should flesh out next. AI can make mistakes, so double-check responses 1 site ⚡ Engineering Datasheet: AetherGlow™ Gas-Plasma Display Subsystem This is the internal engineering specification sheet for the Aethelgard Data Systems (ADS) Model AG-590 Flat Panel, famously integrated into the Titan-9 portable workstation. 1. Optical Specifications Peak Wavelength: 590 nm ± 2 nm (Pure Neon-Argon Penning Mixture). Luminance: 120 cd/m² (Nits) at maximum excitation voltage. Contrast Ratio: 40:1 in ambient office lighting (150:1 in darkened environments). Viewing Angle: 160° horizontal and vertical (zero color or contrast shift). Phosphor Decay Time: 0.0 ms (Instantaneous gas de-ionization, completely eliminating ghosting and motion blur). 2. Geometry & Resolution Native Resolution: 640 × 400 Pixels (Configured for an 8:5 widescreen aspect ratio). Active Display Area: 245.76 mm × 153.60 mm (11.4-inch diagonal). Pixel Pitch: 0.384 mm × 0.384 mm (Square sub-pixels ensuring mathematically precise font scaling). Sub-Pixel Mask: Micro-machined honeycomb grid to eliminate inter-pixel gas migration and bleeding. 3. Electrical & Thermal Tolerances Sustain Voltage ( ): 185 V DC (Requires specialized high-voltage driver ICs). Write/Address Voltage ( ): 240 V DC pulse for initial gas breakdown. Power Consumption: 32 W typical (Static display), scaling to 65 W maximum under full text rendering. Heat Dissipation: Convection cooled via an integrated magnesium alloy rear heatsink plate. No internal fan required. 4. Typography Constraints (Firmware Level) Pixel Matrix: Optimized for a native 8 × 16 font cell. Anti-Aliasing: None. The hardware utilizes Spatial Dithering (AethelGlow Matrix Rendering) to simulate font weight variations without altering physical gas cells. Burn-In Mitigation: Automatic pixel-shifting firmware engages every 300 seconds of static text display, moving the image exactly 1 pixel diagonally to extend neon-argon gas life expectancy to 20,000 hours. If you want to pull more data from the Aethelgard archives, let me know: Should we outline the pinout diagram for the proprietary 40-pin ribbon connector? Do you want to see the startup self-test sequence text that flashes when you flip the toggle switch? Should we design the diagnostic codes for when the gas mixture starts to fail? Tell me which technical block to analyze next. 2 sites The screen would render text using Retail Ghost (Amber Glow Edition)—the proprietary font we imagined earlier—hardcoded directly into the machine's character generator ROM chip. Because it is a hardware-driven system from 1987, it doesn't load modern font files. Instead, it fires electrical signals to light up physical pixels on the plasma grid based on a strict engineering matrix. 📐 The Hardware Font Specification Grid Dimensions: A native 8×16 pixel matrix. Every uppercase letter fits into a strict box 8 pixels wide by 16 pixels high. The Zero Curve: True curves are impossible on this hardware. A capital "O" or "S" is built entirely out of sharp, 45-degree diagonal steps, giving the text a heavily geometric, sci-fi appearance. The 1-Pixel Glow Gap: To prevent the high-voltage neon gas from bleeding between letters and creating a blurry mess, the font firmware leaves a mandatory 1-pixel column of completely dead, black pixels between every single character. 📼 How It Looks on the CRT/Plasma Grid If you were to look through a magnifying glass at the AetherGlow screen printing out text, you would see the physical pixels mapping out the characters like this: text ■ = Glowing Amber Gas Pixel · = Dead oar4ijqxw57f7uqzkjiv64vzh3ianai 2822239 2822238 2026-08-15T11:18:40Z WikiBayer 2181512 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t|ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t]] ([[User_talk:ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.y.t.h.y.r.u.h.h.t|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Fourmidable|Fourmidable]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2715411 wikitext text/x-wiki To acquire further knowledge of the French Language, you can try reading a selection of books/literature available on the internet plus further learning materials. ==Les Miserables== Les Misérables (translated variously from French as The Miserable Ones, The Wretched, The Poor Ones, The Wretched Poor, The Victims) (1862) is a novel by French author Victor Hugo, and among the best-known novels of the 19th century. It follows the lives and interactions of several French characters over a twenty year period in the early 19th century that includes the Napoleonic wars and subsequent decades. Principally focusing on the struggles of the protagonist—ex-convict Jean Valjean—who seeks to redeem himself, the novel also examines the impact of Valjean's actions for the sake of social commentary. It examines the nature of good, evil, and the law, in a sweeping story that expounds upon the history of France, architecture of Paris, politics, moral philosophy, law, justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love. Les Miserables: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17489 ==Poetry== [[Ballade_des_Pendus| Ballade des Pendus]] by François Villon: A medieval poem adapted into modern French and suitable for advanced-intermediate and above learners. lq60yos9ebkxnk2z4pb2jtbl2m1gmxo 4 75745 2822228 2820820 2026-08-15T11:02:38Z ~2026-44661-47 3107484 /* Please unban */ new section 2822228 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} ==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]== {{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC) : I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Please unban == I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the "== External Links ==" section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often… Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be? Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-44661-47|&#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC) lnhfjhecb2h4u03w2ayzuiv7wx9fpzr 2822240 2822228 2026-08-15T11:21:22Z Jtneill 10242 /* Please unban */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2822240 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} ==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]== {{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC) : I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Please unban == I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the "== External Links ==" section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often… Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be? Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-44661-47|&#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC) : Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion: :* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions :* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up. : : But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC) 6ce76z2f46p2exxr2g8thnakdofoc20 2822248 2822240 2026-08-15T11:37:56Z ~2026-44661-47 3107484 /* Please unban */ Reply 2822248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} ==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]== {{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC) : I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC) == Please unban == I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the "== External Links ==" section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often… Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be? Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-44661-47|&#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC) : Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion: :* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions :* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up. : : But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC) ::My debate question is: "Are humans monogamous or polygamous?" (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-44661-47|&#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC) cgi1u3jgozldssgp5di93gh4v8ph2ua 0 139384 2822100 2821947 2026-08-14T14:08:42Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2822100 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260814.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260814.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] fhj3vfrfeo8pueosoea9jlr12cfgja5 10 148360 2822245 2821057 2026-08-15T11:28:59Z Jtneill 10242 2822245 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} <hr> </noinclude>{{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }}<includeonly> [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]]</noinclude> 7n7ln5gjn0asifmaddinghyj0yx20jf 2822247 2822245 2026-08-15T11:30:25Z Jtneill 10242 2822247 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} <hr> </noinclude>{{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }}<includeonly> [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]]</noinclude> fliodhmphkyp1trjr00pj9u0t4knb4o 2822249 2822247 2026-08-15T11:54:03Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2026 2822249 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} <hr> </noinclude>{{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }}<includeonly> [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]]</noinclude> 5twr08v94pi7xlfzxuzl30orh2igw2x 0 171005 2822105 2821952 2026-08-14T14:22:08Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2822105 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260813.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] nwyeairk9j2rq5sk7ion74939oj50ak 0 212733 2822112 2820563 2026-08-14T17:29:49Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2822112 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260810.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] lg1gsv4h1viexb77dy1imuev8m0c1af 2822115 2822112 2026-08-14T17:35:15Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2822115 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260811.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] mikud7k3g5d4ybtt9xrdakd76m9hoqf 2822117 2822115 2026-08-14T17:36:08Z Young1lim 21186 /* Using Libraries */ 2822117 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Part I '''== <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Introduction === * Overview * Memory * Number <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Python for C programmers === * Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]]) * Statement Level ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]]) * Output with print * Formatted output * File IO <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Using Libraries === * Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]]) * Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]]) * Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241207.pdf |pdf]]) * Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20260812.pdf |A]], [[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1B.20260720.pdf |B]]) * Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling a Big Work === * Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]]) * Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Series of Data === * Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]]) * Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types * Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> === Class and Objects === * Classes & Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]]) * Inheritance <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> == Python in Numerical Analysis == </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering] injcb58378g8w0pxh3vx7w00ixcdfen 0 264724 2822119 2822000 2026-08-14T17:59:29Z Scogdill 1331941 2822119 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] = Wedding Dress of Queen Victoria{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}} = {{Use British English|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox clothing item |image_file = Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.jpg |caption = Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at [[St James's Palace]], London, 10 February 1840. Engraved by S Reynolds after F Lock. |designer = [[Mary Bettans]] (dress)<br>[[William Dyce]] (lace) |year = {{start date|1840}} |type = |material = [[Satin]], [[Honiton lace]] }} [[Queen Victoria]] of the United Kingdom [[wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert|married]] [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] on 10 February 1840. She wore a white wedding dress made from heavy silk satin,<ref>Otnes, Cele and Pleck, Elizabeth (2003). Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, p.31. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-24008-7}}</ref> which made her look more like a bride and less like a queen. The England-made [[Honiton lace]] used for her wedding dress proved an important boost to Devon lace-making.<ref name="staniland">{{cite book|last=Staniland|first=Kay|title=In royal fashion : the clothes of Princess Charlotte of Wales & Queen Victoria, 1796-1901|year=1997|publisher=Museum of London|location=London|isbn=0904818772|page=120|edition=1. publ. in Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Billing|first=Joanna|title=The hidden places of Devon|year=2003|publisher=Travel Publishing|location=Aldermaston, Berks.|isbn=9781902007892|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjNx24op7GcC&pg=PT17|edition=6.}}</ref> Queen Victoria is erroneously credited with starting the tradition of [[white wedding]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-brides-wear-white|title=Why Do Brides Wear White?|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref> and white [[bridal gowns]].<ref name="WP">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/royal-wedding-watch/post/queen-victoria-was-the-first-to-get-married-in-white/2011/04/29/AFIYPmDF_blog.html|author=Flock, Elizabeth|title=Queen Victoria was the first to get married in white|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=30 April 2011|date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Maggie|title=Wedding Planning and Management|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136349140|pages=88–89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6bVaaeNopEC&pg=PT89|author2=Carrie Loveless }}</ref> Perhaps because of the extensive press coverage of the wedding, she may be considered to have popularized the white wedding gown, but other royals<ref>{{cite book|last=Panton|first=Kenneth J.|title=Historical dictionary of the British monarchy|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0810874978|page=371|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiyyueBTpaMC&pg=PA371|quote=When the couple married at Lund, in Sweden, on 26 October 1406, Philippa (sometimes known as Philippa of England) became the first daughter of an English sovereign to wear a white outfit at her wedding.}}</ref> and other women of her time were already wearing white. ==Design== Queen Victoria described her wedding dress in her journal: "I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Albert's beautiful sapphire brooch."{{rp|1=RA QVJ/1840: 10 February [QVJ = Queen Victoria's Journals]}} All royal clothing is deliberately "symbolic" — or semiotic — to some degree. Lucy Worsley interprets the simple white dress as Victoria marrying as a woman rather than as "Her Majesty the Queen."<ref name=":52">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (239) Kay Staniland and Santina M. Levey (and the [https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/ Dreamstress blog]) claim that the salient article from Victoria's wedding dress was the Honiton lace, which was designed to be white and which the dress showcased — which is why her dress was white.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/|title=Queen Victoria's wedding dress: the one that started it all|last=Dreamstress|first=The|date=2011-04-17|website=The Dreamstress|language=en-US|access-date=2025-12-17}}</ref> She designed the dresses of the bridesmaids, which were also white. "Onlookers," Worsley says, commenting on the wedding and Victoria's dress, said Victoria and her party looked like "village girls, presumably rather than a monarch and her ladies in waiting."<ref name=":53">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (244 [of 786], citing Wyndham, ed. (1912) p. 297). Others saw the simplicity of the wedding dress similarly, though less negatively. === The Gown === Victoria's plain satin gown was made from fabric woven in [[Spitalfields]], east London, and trimmed with a deep flounce of hand-made Honiton lace.<ref name="wed">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8466914/How-will-The-Dress-measure-up-to-history.html|title= How will The Dress measure up to history?|access-date=1 May 2011|work= The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Hilary|last=Alexander|date=22 April 2011}}</ref> The Royal Collection has [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress Victoria's wedding dress] and shows three views of it. It comprises a "pointed boned bodice lined with silk, elbow length gathered sleeves; deep lace flounces at neck and sleeves and plain untrimmed skirt en suite, gathered into [the] waist with unpressed pleats."<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress|title=Mary Bettans: Queen Victoria's wedding dress 1840|date=2027 August 13|website=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=}}</ref> (The flounce at the neck can also be called a berthe.) Even with the flounces and trim of lace and orange blossoms, Victoria's gown had fewer decorative elements than most formal dresses or than haute couture. The train of the dress measured {{Convert|18|ft}} in length, although it was too short for the number of bridesmaids to carry without tripping on each other. The slippers she wore matched the dress, likely the same fabric. ==== The Color of the Dress ==== The actual [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress wedding dress] is now cream colored, although Victoria recorded in her journal that her gown was white, as did the newspapers. Because silk was naturally cream colored, the silk fibers had to be bleached to be white and yellowed over time. Women's [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]] — including what debutantes wore when presented to the monarch — was traditionally white, and by 1840 white dresses were gaining popularity in the middle classes as well, especially in cotton. White wedding dresses, too, were increasingly popular in Europe and North America as well as in the U.K. at this time. For example, in the U.S. upper-middle-class Frances Todd wore a white wedding dress on 21 May 1839, the same dress her sister Mary wore when she married Abraham Lincoln on 4 November 1842. Sophie of Württembert, Queen of the Netherlands wore white for her wedding on 18 June 1839. While it was not uncommon as a dress color in 1840, the color white suggested wealth and status, even for middle-class wearers, because the world was sooty and white required constant maintenance, but it did not suggest royalty or sovereignty. === The Lace === Besides wearing a lace veil, Queen Victoria's dress was decorated with a deep lace flounce, which is a "band of fabric or lace that is fluted [sewn into narrow pleats] and attached to [the] garment by its upper edge only." (Lewandowski 109) The veil, which matched the flounce of the dress, was four yards in length and 0.75 yards wide. The lace was designed by "the Pre-Raphaelite artist [[William Dyce]],"<ref name=":22" /> head of the then Government School of Design (later known as the [[Royal College of Art]]), and mounted on a white satin dress probably made by [[Mary Bettans]].<ref name="wed" /> The East [[Devon]] laces, called Honiton lace, were "the finest British bobbin laces."<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus|year=2023|location=New York|pages=27-28}}</ref> Although generally the lace is called [[Honiton]] lace, Queen Victoria's was "made by lacemakers in the coastal village of [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]," "supervised by a Miss Jane Bidney."<ref name=":21" /> The queen's patronage of the Devon lacemakers demonstrated support for English industry, particularly the [[cottage industry]] for lace,<ref name="Khalje1997">{{cite book|last=Khalje|first=Susan|title=Bridal couture: fine sewing techniques for wedding gowns and evening wear|url=https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal|url-access=registration|access-date=30 April 2011|date=1 May 1997|publisher=Krause Publications Craft|isbn=978-0-8019-8757-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal/page/9 9]}}</ref><ref name="wed" /> at a time when Brussels lace was more fashionable. The handmade lace motifs were [[appliqué]]d onto cotton machine-made net.<ref name="Lace crafts quarterly">{{cite book|title=Lace crafts quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BblOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=1 May 2011|year=1987|publisher=Eunice Sein}}</ref> === The Jewelry === Orange blossoms also trimmed the dress and made up a wreath, which Victoria wore instead of a tiara over her veil, choosing perhaps to be seen as a bride rather than a monarch. Victoria's jewelry consisted of a necklace and earrings made of diamonds presented to her by the Sultan of Turkey, and a sapphire cluster brooch given to her by Albert the day before. ==After the wedding== {{multiple image | align = left |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria, 1847.jpg |caption1 = Portrait painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]], 1847, as an anniversary present for Prince Albert |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria 60. crownjubilee.jpg |caption2 = Victoria wearing her wedding veil and lace for her Diamond Jubilee Portrait, 1897 }} ===Paintings and Photographs=== While [[photography]] existed in 1840, the results were still too primitive to be considered as a means of preserving what the wedding looked like. No historically accurate portrait was painted of the wedding, although many images of the ceremony were made at the time and later. For example, in 1847, Victoria commissioned [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]] to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding '''clothes''' as an anniversary present for Prince Albert.<ref name="haslem">{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria in her wedding dress by John Haslem after Winterhalter, 1848|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=21&object=421993&row=20&detail=about|publisher=Royal Collections}}</ref> The portrait was also copied as an enamel miniature by [[John Haslem (artist)|John Haslem]].<ref name="haslem" /> A series of photographs taken by [[Roger Fenton]] on 11 May 1854 of Victoria and Albert are erroneously described as wedding or reenactment photographs, with the dress identified as her wedding dress.<ref>{{cite web|last=Avenell|first=Matthew|title=Representations of Queen Victoria in Official Painted & Photographic Portraits|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofEnglish/visual-culture/painting/Victoria-portraits.html|publisher=Victorian Visual Culture|access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Royal weddings in history|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/royalty/8137332/Royal-weddings-in-history.html|access-date=11 June 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> According to the Royal Collection Trust, the images are the first photographs to show Victoria as a queen, rather than as a wife or mother, and that she and Albert are wearing [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Buckingham Palace|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=22&object=2906513&row=21&detail=about|publisher=The Royal Collection|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Victoria & Albert: art & love|year=2010|publisher=Royal Collection |location=London |isbn=9781905686216 |editor=Jonathan Marsden}}, cited on {{Royal Collection|2906513|Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Buckingham Palace 11 May 1854|[[Roger Fenton]]}}</ref> ===Queen Victoria's wedding lace=== {{multiple image | align = right |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91.jpg |caption1 = Carbon print of the Honiton lace veil and wreath decorated with orange blossoms worn by Queen Victoria on her wedding day c.1889–91 from Queen Victoria's Private Negatives, Vol. II c. 1850. |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91 Detail.jpg |caption2 = Another carbon print of the veil showing more lace detail on one edge, along with a clear view of orange blossoms wreath. }} Victoria revisited the lace-makers to create the [[royal christening gown]] worn by her children, including Albert Edward (the future [[Edward VII]]).<ref name="Heptinstall2008">{{cite book|author=Simon Heptinstall|title=Devon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgl-bkW9a8sC&pg=PA98|access-date=1 May 2011|date=15 June 2008|publisher=Crimson Publishing|isbn=978-1-85458-426-7|page=98}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This gown was worn for the christening of all subsequent royal babies until the baptism of [[James, Viscount Severn]] in 2008, when a replica was used for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Queen sees grandson's christening|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354474.stm|work=19 April 2008|date=19 April 2008 |publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> As a mark of support for the Honiton industry, in addition to often wearing their lace on her and her children's clothes, Victoria insisted her daughters also order Honiton lace for their wedding dresses.<ref name="staniland" /> Victoria also wore her wedding lace mounted on the dresses she wore to the christenings of her nine children (except for Albert Edward's, for which she wore her [[Order of the Garter|Garter robes]]).<ref name="poaq">{{cite book|last=Munson|first=Richard Mullen & James|title=Victoria : portrait of a queen|year=1987|publisher=British Broadcasting Corp.|location=London|isbn=0563204567|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJdQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22own+wedding+lace%22|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jane |title=Bertie: A Life of Edward VII|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781448161119|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgINPRluu2UC&pg=PA17}}</ref> She also wore it to the weddings of two of her children, her eldest daughter, [[Victoria, Princess Royal|Victoria]], in 1858,<ref name="poaq" /> and her youngest son, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Leopold]], in 1882.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lane|first=John|title=A Right Royal Feast : Menus from Royal Weddings and History's Greatest Banquets.|year=2011|publisher=David & Charles|location=Newton Abbot|isbn=978-1446301616|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jclWRnYf2-0C&pg=PA21}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Her youngest daughter, [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]], was permitted to wear it as part of [[Wedding dress of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|her wedding gown]] in 1885.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Michaela|author-link=Michaela Reid|title=Ask Sir James : Sir James Reid, personal physician to Queen Victoria and physician-in-ordinary to three monarchs|year=1990|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, N.Y., U.S.A.|isbn=0140130241|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7rZAAAAMAAJ&q=Honiton+lace}}</ref> Victoria also wore the lace to the wedding of her grandson [[George V|George]] (the future George V) to [[Mary of Teck]] in 1893,<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolitho|first=Hector|title=Victoria and Albert|year=1938|publisher=Cobden-Sanderson|page=337|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db8KAQAAMAAJ&q=%22my+wedding+lace%22}}</ref> and for her [[Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria|Diamond Jubilee]] official photograph in 1897.<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=Greg|title=Twilight of splendor : the court of Queen Victoria during her diamond jubilee year|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9780470044391|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNa57nc2S0wC&pg=PA15}}</ref> When Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|title=Queen Victoria, a personal history|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=9780306810855|page=497|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWlnAAAAMAAJ&q=wedding+veil|edition=1st DaCapo Press}}</ref> In 2012 it was reported that while the dress itself had been conserved and displayed at [[Kensington Palace]] that year, the surviving lace was now too fragile to move from storage.<ref name="wed" /> ==Influence== White weddings have been popular since the time of Queen Victoria's. Less than a decade later, ''[[Godey's Lady's Book]]'' would incorrectly claim that white wedding gowns were an ancient custom reflecting a bride's virginity, writing "Custom has decided, from the earliest ages, that white is the most fitting hue, whatever may be the material. It is an emblem of the purity and innocence of girlhood, and the unsullied heart she now yields to the chosen one", even though white had been a distinctly uncommon choice for bridal gowns before Victoria's wedding and was not chosen by a majority of brides until decades later.<ref name="WP" /> Following the 2011 [[wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton]], comparisons were drawn between the bride's [[Wedding dress of Kate Middleton|white wedding dress]] and Queen Victoria's.<ref name="WP" /> ==See also== {{Portal|Victorian era}} * [[List of individual dresses]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13207649 BBC audio slideshow featuring her wedding dress] {{Queen Victoria}} {{British Royal wedding dresses}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = [[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]] [[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]] '''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion. Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring a new age of consumerism with the rising middle class who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> ==Women's fashions== [[File:Bermudians Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846.jpg|thumb|[[Demographics of Bermuda|Bermudian]] sisters Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846]] During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally worked in the private, domestic sphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike in earlier centuries when women would often help their husbands and brothers in family businesses and in labour, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more defined. The requirement for farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected this new, increasingly sedentary lifestyle, and was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> hence were differentiated in terms of [[social class]]. Most women wore a [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as crinolines or bustles. [[Upper class|Upper-class women]], who did not need to work, often wore more tightly-fitting garments and corsets, adorned with numerous [[Embroidery|embroideries]] and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] exhibited similar dress styles; however, the decorations were not as extravagant. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric and fewer layers and trimmings. The many layers and the construction of garments made women's clothing much heavier than today, and more restrictive, especially in the waist (due to the stiffness of the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount and quality of fabric was often a display of wealth. [[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|Picture of 1850s evening dress with a bertha neckline]] * '''Neckline''': For day, a close neckline was ubiquitous for most of the period. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]].<ref name="h608">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> This cut exposed a woman's shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six-inch deep lace flounce, or with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats.<br />This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening. * '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s were ubiquitous, providing bust and posture support helping to shape the female body into the fashionable silhouette. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bind tightly around the waist, hold and train a person's waistline. It also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. Corsets have been blamed for causing many diseases because of tight lacing, but the practice was less commonplace than generally thought today ([[Effects of tightlacing on the body]]). [[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants would be worn to fill open sleeves.]] * '''Sleeves''': In the early [[Victorian era]], the gigot sleeve of the [[1830s in Western fashion|Romantic Era]] began to tighten into a slimmer line. The [[armscye]] was dropped off the shoulder to emphasize the hourglass silhouette.<ref name="t892">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=My Likeness Taken |date=2005 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0-87338-837-5 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref><br />However, as [[crinoline]]s started to develop in fashion in the 1850s, sleeves turned to be like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, which were usually made of lace, linen, or lawn, with cambric and broderie anglaise, were worn under the sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position, so to act as false sleeves, which was tacked to the elbow-length sleeves during the time. They commonly appear under the bell-shaped sleeves of day dresses. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.<ref name="y040">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref> * '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the undergarment. In earlier days, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats which used horsehair in the weave.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}</ref> By 1856, the hooped underpinning known as the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] was used to give skirts a bouffant shape. The [[1860s in Western fashion|1860s]] saw fullness slowly move toward the back of the skirt, with the "first bustle" [[1870s in Western fashion|1870s]] silhouette requiring the [[crinolette]] and then a [[bustle]] to support the fashionable draperies such as the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]]. The bustle disappeared in the late 1870s and returned in a more shelf-like form in the "second bustle" [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]], with hooped undergarments finally falling out of favor at the start of the [[1890s in Western fashion|1890s]]. [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. === 1830s dress style === [[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]] [[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|left|thumb|English day dress of around the time of Victoria's ascendancy, with bow details and puffed sleeves.]] During the start of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist. Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, worn with a busk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}</ref> A chemise was worn under the corset, and cut relatively low in order to prevent exposure. Over the corset, was the tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Along with the bodice was a long skirt, featuring layers of stiffened petticoats<ref name=":0" /> worn underneath to create fullness; while placing emphasis on the small waist. To contrast the narrow waist, low and wide necklines were used. === 1840s dress style === [[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]] In the 1840s, narrower sleeves, elongated V-shaped bodices, and fuller skirts characterized the dress styles of women. The 1840s style was perceived as conservative and "Gothic" compared to the flamboyance of the 1830s, with the silhouette tightening, lengthening, and a move away from elaborate trims.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> At the start of the decade, bodices lengthened to the natural waist, and met at a point in the front. The popular low and narrow waist was accentuated by the shape of the corset and [[Seam (sewing)|seam]] lines on the bodice. At the start of the decade, sleeves of bodices were tight at the top, but puffed around the area between the elbow and before the wrist because of the [[wikt:mancheron|mancheron]] or gigot.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref> This soon disappeared and was replaced with a tight line. The second half of the decade saw sleeves flaring out from the elbow into a funnel shape; requiring [https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/undersleeves/ undersleeves] to be worn in order to cover the lower arms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=39}}</ref> Skirts lengthened, while widths increased due to the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline] in 1847; becoming a status symbol of wealth. Extra layers of [[Ruffle (sewing)|flounces]] and petticoats also further emphasised the fullness of these wide skirts. To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.<ref name=":1" /> === 1850s dress style === [[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|left|thumb|A day ensemble ca. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]] The hourglass silhouette further was exaggerated in the 1850s. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. In contrast, evening dresses were cut low across the shoulder, often featuring a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha collar]]. Bodices began to extend over the hips, while the sleeves opened further and increased in fullness. Skirts were domelike, with increasing volume as tiers of flounces became popular decorations.[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|A print displaying the fashionable silhouette of the 1850s and then the cage crinoline needed to support it.]] In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together to form a circular structure that could support the large width of the skirt. This was made possible by technology which allowed iron to be turned into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3" /> Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats and was a much more hygienic option.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, the invention of synthetic dyes made brighter colours more accessible and women experimented with gaudy or saturated colours.<ref name=":3" /> === 1860s dress style === [[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress in 1864, showcasing bishop sleeves and simple trim.]] The 1860s saw the shape of skirts change from bouffant and domelike to conical and somewhat elliptical, with more fullness in the back. Trims simplified and became more geometric with skirts simplifying from pleats to gored panels.<ref name="w586">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> [[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|left|thumb|An English silk morning dress from 1865, with machine-made lace.]] During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> Bodices remained relatively unchanged, ending at the natural waistline with wide [[Sleeve|pagoda sleeves]] or bishop sleeves. By the middle of the decade, the shape of the crinoline became flatter in the front and more voluminous behind, often with a train, requiring an elliptical crinoline. In 1868, Skirt widths diminished even further, while fullness and length remained at the back. In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=45}}</ref> === 1870s dress style === [[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle & Polonaise|left|thumb|A fashion plate of early 1870s day and evening dress.]]The style of the 1870s was characterized by an abundance of draperies and trims, beginning the [[1775–1795 in Western fashion|rococo]] revival. The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. The waistline of the early 1870s was high, necklines varied, while armscye remained off the shoulder. An [[overskirt]] was extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress from 1874, with back draperies and an overskirt.]] Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. As the bodices grew longer in 1873, the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] was thus introduced into the Victorian dress styles. A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice together. The [[tournure]] was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end. By 1874, skirts began to taper in the front and were adorned with trimmings, while sleeves tightened around the wrist area. Towards 1875 to 1876, bodices featured long but even tighter laced waists, and converged at a sharp point in front. Bustles lengthened and slipped even lower, causing the fullness of the skirt to further diminish. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean. [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An English sheer summer dress with polonaise from around 1875.]] In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure,<ref name=":2" /> as increasingly slimmer silhouettes were favored. This was allowed by the invention of the cuirass bodice, which extends downwards to the hips and upper thighs. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the train was often supported with a cage. The armscye, for the first time in the period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era. === 1880s dress style === [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|The lobster tail bustle of around 1885.]] The saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear inspired tailoring.<ref name=":4" /> Some credited the change in silhouette to the [[Victorian dress reform]], which consisted of a few movements including the [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Costume]] Movement and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress Movement]] in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating for a natural silhouette and lightweight underwear, and rejecting [[tightlacing]]. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing.<ref name=":3" /> Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.<ref name=":4" /> [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|left|thumb|An 1887 portrait of English evening dress with higher shoulder placement, simple trims, and a V-shaped neckline.]] After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, the bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder.<ref name="g4223"/> === 1890s dress style === [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]] By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style.The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4" /> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223"/> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Men's fashion == [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Contemporary stereotypes == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]] Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} qyr6rwjw49o17wqmzg3jif1xgf7ocdx 2822121 2822119 2026-08-14T19:00:49Z Scogdill 1331941 2822121 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] = Wedding Dress of Queen Victoria{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}} = {{Use British English|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox clothing item |image_file = Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.jpg |caption = Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at [[St James's Palace]], London, 10 February 1840. Engraved by S Reynolds after F Lock. |designer = [[Mary Bettans]] (dress)<br>[[William Dyce]] (lace) |year = {{start date|1840}} |type = |material = [[Satin]], [[Honiton lace]] }} [[Queen Victoria]] of the United Kingdom [[wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert|married]] [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] on 10 February 1840. She wore a white wedding dress made from heavy silk satin,<ref>Otnes, Cele and Pleck, Elizabeth (2003). Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, p.31. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-24008-7}}</ref> which made her look more like a bride and less like a queen. The England-made [[Honiton lace]] used for her wedding dress proved an important boost to Devon lace-making.<ref name="staniland">{{cite book|last=Staniland|first=Kay|title=In royal fashion : the clothes of Princess Charlotte of Wales & Queen Victoria, 1796-1901|year=1997|publisher=Museum of London|location=London|isbn=0904818772|page=120|edition=1. publ. in Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Billing|first=Joanna|title=The hidden places of Devon|year=2003|publisher=Travel Publishing|location=Aldermaston, Berks.|isbn=9781902007892|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjNx24op7GcC&pg=PT17|edition=6.}}</ref> Queen Victoria is erroneously credited with starting the tradition of [[white wedding]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-brides-wear-white|title=Why Do Brides Wear White?|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref> and white [[bridal gowns]].<ref name="WP">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/royal-wedding-watch/post/queen-victoria-was-the-first-to-get-married-in-white/2011/04/29/AFIYPmDF_blog.html|author=Flock, Elizabeth|title=Queen Victoria was the first to get married in white|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=30 April 2011|date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Maggie|title=Wedding Planning and Management|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136349140|pages=88–89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6bVaaeNopEC&pg=PT89|author2=Carrie Loveless }}</ref> Perhaps because of the extensive press coverage of the wedding, she may be considered to have popularized the white wedding gown, but other royals<ref>{{cite book|last=Panton|first=Kenneth J.|title=Historical dictionary of the British monarchy|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0810874978|page=371|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiyyueBTpaMC&pg=PA371|quote=When the couple married at Lund, in Sweden, on 26 October 1406, Philippa (sometimes known as Philippa of England) became the first daughter of an English sovereign to wear a white outfit at her wedding.}}</ref> and other women of her time were already wearing white. ==Design== Queen Victoria described her wedding dress in her journal: "I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Albert's beautiful sapphire brooch."{{rp|1=RA QVJ/1840: 10 February [QVJ = Queen Victoria's Journals]}} All royal clothing is deliberately "symbolic" — or semiotic — to some degree. Lucy Worsley interprets the simple white dress as Victoria marrying as a woman rather than as "Her Majesty the Queen."<ref name=":52">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (239) Kay Staniland and Santina M. Levey (and the [https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/ Dreamstress blog]) claim that the salient article from Victoria's wedding dress was the Honiton lace, which was designed to be white and which the dress showcased — which is why her dress was white.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/|title=Queen Victoria's wedding dress: the one that started it all|last=Dreamstress|first=The|date=2011-04-17|website=The Dreamstress|language=en-US|access-date=2025-12-17}}</ref> She designed the dresses of the bridesmaids, which were also white. "Onlookers," Worsley says, commenting on the wedding and Victoria's dress, said Victoria and her party looked like "village girls, presumably rather than a monarch and her ladies in waiting."<ref name=":53">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (244 [of 786], citing Wyndham, ed. (1912) p. 297). Others saw the simplicity of the wedding dress similarly, though less negatively. === The Gown === Victoria's plain satin gown was made from fabric woven in [[Spitalfields]], east London, and trimmed with a deep flounce of hand-made Honiton lace.<ref name="wed">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8466914/How-will-The-Dress-measure-up-to-history.html|title= How will The Dress measure up to history?|access-date=1 May 2011|work= The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Hilary|last=Alexander|date=22 April 2011}}</ref> The Royal Collection has [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress Victoria's wedding dress] and shows three views of it. It comprises a "pointed boned bodice lined with silk, elbow length gathered sleeves; deep lace flounces at neck and sleeves and plain untrimmed skirt en suite, gathered into [the] waist with unpressed pleats."<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress|title=Mary Bettans: Queen Victoria's wedding dress 1840|date=2027 August 13|website=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=}}</ref> (The flounce at the neck can also be called a berthe.) Even with the flounces and trim of lace and orange blossoms, Victoria's gown had fewer decorative elements than most formal dresses or than haute couture. The train of the dress measured {{Convert|18|ft}} in length, although it was too short for the number of bridesmaids to carry without tripping on each other. The slippers she wore matched the dress, likely the same fabric. ==== The Color of the Dress ==== The actual [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress wedding dress] is now cream colored, although Victoria recorded in her journal that her gown was white, as did the newspapers. Because silk was naturally cream colored, the silk fibers had to be bleached to be white, and they yellowed over time. Women's [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]] — including what debutantes wore when presented to the monarch — was traditionally white, and by 1840 white dresses were gaining popularity in the middle classes as well, especially in cotton. White wedding dresses, too, were increasingly popular in Europe and North America as well as in the U.K. at this time. For example, in the U.S. upper-middle-class Frances Todd wore a white wedding dress on 21 May 1839, the same dress her sister Mary wore when she married Abraham Lincoln on 4 November 1842. Sophie of Württembert, Queen of the Netherlands wore white for her wedding on 18 June 1839. While it was not uncommon as a dress color in 1840, the color white suggested wealth and status, even for middle-class wearers, because the world was sooty and white required constant maintenance, but it did not suggest royalty or sovereignty. === The Lace === Queen Victoria's dress was decorated with a deep lace flounce, which is a "band of fabric or lace that is fluted [sewn into narrow pleats] and attached to [the] garment by its upper edge only." (Lewandowski 109) Made of the same lace pattern as the flounce of the dress, the veil was four yards in length and '''0.75 yards wide'''. Victoria ordered her handmade lace from East Devon, using a British rather than Belgian or French lace. The laces made in East [[Devon]] were "the finest British bobbin laces."<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus|year=2023|location=New York|pages=27-28}}</ref> Although generally the lace is called [[Honiton]] lace, Queen Victoria's was "made by lacemakers in the coastal village of [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]," "supervised by a Miss Jane Bidney."<ref name=":21" /> The queen's patronage of the Devon lacemakers demonstrated support for English industry, particularly the [[cottage industry]] for lace,<ref name="Khalje1997">{{cite book|last=Khalje|first=Susan|title=Bridal couture: fine sewing techniques for wedding gowns and evening wear|url=https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal|url-access=registration|access-date=30 April 2011|date=1 May 1997|publisher=Krause Publications Craft|isbn=978-0-8019-8757-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal/page/9 9]}}</ref><ref name="wed" /> at a time when Brussels lace was more desirable to the those who wore haute couture. The lace was designed by "the Pre-Raphaelite artist [[William Dyce]],"<ref name=":22" /> head of the then Government School of Design (later known as the [[Royal College of Art]]), and mounted on a white satin dress probably made by [[Mary Bettans]].<ref name="wed" /> The handmade lace motifs were [[appliqué]]d onto cotton machine-made net.<ref name="Lace crafts quarterly">{{cite book|title=Lace crafts quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BblOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=1 May 2011|year=1987|publisher=Eunice Sein}}</ref> === The Jewelry === Orange blossoms also trimmed the dress and made up a wreath, which Victoria wore instead of a tiara over her veil, choosing perhaps to be seen as a bride rather than a monarch. Victoria's jewelry consisted of a necklace and earrings made of diamonds presented to her by the Sultan of Turkey, and a sapphire cluster brooch given to her by Albert the day before. ==After the wedding== {{multiple image | align = left |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria, 1847.jpg |caption1 = Portrait painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]], 1847, as an anniversary present for Prince Albert |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria 60. crownjubilee.jpg |caption2 = Victoria wearing her wedding veil and lace for her Diamond Jubilee Portrait, 1897 }} ===Paintings and Photographs=== While [[photography]] existed in 1840, the results were still too primitive to be considered as a means of preserving what the wedding looked like. No historically accurate portrait was painted of the wedding, although many images of the ceremony were made at the time and later. For example, in 1847, Victoria commissioned [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]] to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding ensemble as an anniversary present for Prince Albert.<ref name="haslem">{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria in her wedding dress by John Haslem after Winterhalter, 1848|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=21&object=421993&row=20&detail=about|publisher=Royal Collections}}</ref> The portrait was also copied as an enamel miniature by [[John Haslem (artist)|John Haslem]].<ref name="haslem" /> A series of photographs taken by [[Roger Fenton]] on 11 May 1854 of Victoria and Albert are erroneously described as wedding or reenactment photographs, with the dress identified as her wedding dress.<ref>{{cite web|last=Avenell|first=Matthew|title=Representations of Queen Victoria in Official Painted & Photographic Portraits|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofEnglish/visual-culture/painting/Victoria-portraits.html|publisher=Victorian Visual Culture|access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Royal weddings in history|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/royalty/8137332/Royal-weddings-in-history.html|access-date=11 June 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> According to the Royal Collection Trust, the images are the first photographs to show Victoria as a queen, rather than as a wife or mother, and that she and Albert are wearing [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Buckingham Palace|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=22&object=2906513&row=21&detail=about|publisher=The Royal Collection|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Victoria & Albert: art & love|year=2010|publisher=Royal Collection |location=London |isbn=9781905686216 |editor=Jonathan Marsden}}, cited on {{Royal Collection|2906513|Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Buckingham Palace 11 May 1854|[[Roger Fenton]]}}</ref> ===Queen Victoria's wedding lace=== {{multiple image | align = right |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91.jpg |caption1 = Carbon print of the Honiton lace veil and wreath decorated with orange blossoms worn by Queen Victoria on her wedding day c.1889–91 from Queen Victoria's Private Negatives, Vol. II c. 1850. |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91 Detail.jpg |caption2 = Another carbon print of the veil showing more lace detail on one edge, along with a clear view of orange blossoms wreath. }} As a mark of support for the Honiton industry, Victoria used her wedding lace and other Honiton laces for the rest of her life, and she had her children do the same.<ref name="staniland" /> Victoria revisited the lace-makers to create the [[royal christening gown]] worn by her children, including Albert Edward (the future [[Edward VII]]).<ref name="Heptinstall2008">{{cite book|author=Simon Heptinstall|title=Devon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgl-bkW9a8sC&pg=PA98|access-date=1 May 2011|date=15 June 2008|publisher=Crimson Publishing|isbn=978-1-85458-426-7|page=98}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This gown was worn for the christening of all subsequent royal babies until the baptism of [[James, Viscount Severn]] in 2008, when a replica was used for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Queen sees grandson's christening|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354474.stm|work=19 April 2008|date=19 April 2008 |publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>Victoria also wore her wedding lace mounted on the dresses she wore to the christenings of her nine children (except for Albert Edward's, for which she wore her [[Order of the Garter|Garter robes]]).<ref name="poaq">{{cite book|last=Munson|first=Richard Mullen & James|title=Victoria : portrait of a queen|year=1987|publisher=British Broadcasting Corp.|location=London|isbn=0563204567|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJdQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22own+wedding+lace%22|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jane |title=Bertie: A Life of Edward VII|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781448161119|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgINPRluu2UC&pg=PA17}}</ref> She wore her Honiton wedding lace to the marriage ceremonies of two of her children, her eldest daughter, [[Victoria, Princess Royal|Victoria]], in 1858,<ref name="poaq" /> and her youngest son, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Leopold]], in 1882.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lane|first=John|title=A Right Royal Feast : Menus from Royal Weddings and History's Greatest Banquets.|year=2011|publisher=David & Charles|location=Newton Abbot|isbn=978-1446301616|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jclWRnYf2-0C&pg=PA21}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Her youngest daughter, [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]], was permitted to wear it as part of [[Wedding dress of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|her wedding gown]] in 1885.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Michaela|author-link=Michaela Reid|title=Ask Sir James : Sir James Reid, personal physician to Queen Victoria and physician-in-ordinary to three monarchs|year=1990|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, N.Y., U.S.A.|isbn=0140130241|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7rZAAAAMAAJ&q=Honiton+lace}}</ref> Victoria also wore the lace to the wedding of her grandson [[George V|George]] (the future George V) to [[Mary of Teck]] in 1893<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolitho|first=Hector|title=Victoria and Albert|year=1938|publisher=Cobden-Sanderson|page=337|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db8KAQAAMAAJ&q=%22my+wedding+lace%22}}</ref> and for her [[Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria|Diamond Jubilee]] official photograph in 1897.<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=Greg|title=Twilight of splendor : the court of Queen Victoria during her diamond jubilee year|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9780470044391|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNa57nc2S0wC&pg=PA15}}</ref> She insisted her daughters order Honiton lace for their wedding ensembles. When Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|title=Queen Victoria, a personal history|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=9780306810855|page=497|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWlnAAAAMAAJ&q=wedding+veil|edition=1st DaCapo Press}}</ref> In 2012 it was reported that while the dress itself had been conserved and displayed at [[Kensington Palace]] that year, the surviving lace was now too fragile to move from storage.<ref name="wed" /> ==See also== {{Portal|Victorian era}} * [[List of individual dresses]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13207649 BBC audio slideshow featuring her wedding dress] {{Queen Victoria}} {{British Royal wedding dresses}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = [[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]] [[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]] '''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion. Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring a new age of consumerism with the rising middle class who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> ==Women's fashions== [[File:Bermudians Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846.jpg|thumb|[[Demographics of Bermuda|Bermudian]] sisters Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846]] During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally worked in the private, domestic sphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike in earlier centuries when women would often help their husbands and brothers in family businesses and in labour, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more defined. The requirement for farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected this new, increasingly sedentary lifestyle, and was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> hence were differentiated in terms of [[social class]]. Most women wore a [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as crinolines or bustles. [[Upper class|Upper-class women]], who did not need to work, often wore more tightly-fitting garments and corsets, adorned with numerous [[Embroidery|embroideries]] and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] exhibited similar dress styles; however, the decorations were not as extravagant. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric and fewer layers and trimmings. The many layers and the construction of garments made women's clothing much heavier than today, and more restrictive, especially in the waist (due to the stiffness of the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount and quality of fabric was often a display of wealth. [[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|Picture of 1850s evening dress with a bertha neckline]] * '''Neckline''': For day, a close neckline was ubiquitous for most of the period. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]].<ref name="h608">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> This cut exposed a woman's shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six-inch deep lace flounce, or with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats.<br />This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening. * '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s were ubiquitous, providing bust and posture support helping to shape the female body into the fashionable silhouette. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bind tightly around the waist, hold and train a person's waistline. It also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. Corsets have been blamed for causing many diseases because of tight lacing, but the practice was less commonplace than generally thought today ([[Effects of tightlacing on the body]]). [[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants would be worn to fill open sleeves.]] * '''Sleeves''': In the early [[Victorian era]], the gigot sleeve of the [[1830s in Western fashion|Romantic Era]] began to tighten into a slimmer line. The [[armscye]] was dropped off the shoulder to emphasize the hourglass silhouette.<ref name="t892">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=My Likeness Taken |date=2005 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0-87338-837-5 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref><br />However, as [[crinoline]]s started to develop in fashion in the 1850s, sleeves turned to be like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, which were usually made of lace, linen, or lawn, with cambric and broderie anglaise, were worn under the sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position, so to act as false sleeves, which was tacked to the elbow-length sleeves during the time. They commonly appear under the bell-shaped sleeves of day dresses. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.<ref name="y040">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref> * '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the undergarment. In earlier days, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats which used horsehair in the weave.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}</ref> By 1856, the hooped underpinning known as the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] was used to give skirts a bouffant shape. The [[1860s in Western fashion|1860s]] saw fullness slowly move toward the back of the skirt, with the "first bustle" [[1870s in Western fashion|1870s]] silhouette requiring the [[crinolette]] and then a [[bustle]] to support the fashionable draperies such as the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]]. The bustle disappeared in the late 1870s and returned in a more shelf-like form in the "second bustle" [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]], with hooped undergarments finally falling out of favor at the start of the [[1890s in Western fashion|1890s]]. [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. === 1830s dress style === [[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]] [[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|left|thumb|English day dress of around the time of Victoria's ascendancy, with bow details and puffed sleeves.]] During the start of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist. Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, worn with a busk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}</ref> A chemise was worn under the corset, and cut relatively low in order to prevent exposure. Over the corset, was the tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Along with the bodice was a long skirt, featuring layers of stiffened petticoats<ref name=":0" /> worn underneath to create fullness; while placing emphasis on the small waist. To contrast the narrow waist, low and wide necklines were used. === 1840s dress style === [[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]] In the 1840s, narrower sleeves, elongated V-shaped bodices, and fuller skirts characterized the dress styles of women. The 1840s style was perceived as conservative and "Gothic" compared to the flamboyance of the 1830s, with the silhouette tightening, lengthening, and a move away from elaborate trims.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> At the start of the decade, bodices lengthened to the natural waist, and met at a point in the front. The popular low and narrow waist was accentuated by the shape of the corset and [[Seam (sewing)|seam]] lines on the bodice. At the start of the decade, sleeves of bodices were tight at the top, but puffed around the area between the elbow and before the wrist because of the [[wikt:mancheron|mancheron]] or gigot.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref> This soon disappeared and was replaced with a tight line. The second half of the decade saw sleeves flaring out from the elbow into a funnel shape; requiring [https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/undersleeves/ undersleeves] to be worn in order to cover the lower arms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=39}}</ref> Skirts lengthened, while widths increased due to the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline] in 1847; becoming a status symbol of wealth. Extra layers of [[Ruffle (sewing)|flounces]] and petticoats also further emphasised the fullness of these wide skirts. To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.<ref name=":1" /> === 1850s dress style === [[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|left|thumb|A day ensemble ca. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]] The hourglass silhouette further was exaggerated in the 1850s. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. In contrast, evening dresses were cut low across the shoulder, often featuring a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha collar]]. Bodices began to extend over the hips, while the sleeves opened further and increased in fullness. Skirts were domelike, with increasing volume as tiers of flounces became popular decorations.[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|A print displaying the fashionable silhouette of the 1850s and then the cage crinoline needed to support it.]] In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together to form a circular structure that could support the large width of the skirt. This was made possible by technology which allowed iron to be turned into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3" /> Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats and was a much more hygienic option.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, the invention of synthetic dyes made brighter colours more accessible and women experimented with gaudy or saturated colours.<ref name=":3" /> === 1860s dress style === [[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress in 1864, showcasing bishop sleeves and simple trim.]] The 1860s saw the shape of skirts change from bouffant and domelike to conical and somewhat elliptical, with more fullness in the back. Trims simplified and became more geometric with skirts simplifying from pleats to gored panels.<ref name="w586">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> [[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|left|thumb|An English silk morning dress from 1865, with machine-made lace.]] During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> Bodices remained relatively unchanged, ending at the natural waistline with wide [[Sleeve|pagoda sleeves]] or bishop sleeves. By the middle of the decade, the shape of the crinoline became flatter in the front and more voluminous behind, often with a train, requiring an elliptical crinoline. In 1868, Skirt widths diminished even further, while fullness and length remained at the back. In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=45}}</ref> === 1870s dress style === [[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle & Polonaise|left|thumb|A fashion plate of early 1870s day and evening dress.]]The style of the 1870s was characterized by an abundance of draperies and trims, beginning the [[1775–1795 in Western fashion|rococo]] revival. The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. The waistline of the early 1870s was high, necklines varied, while armscye remained off the shoulder. An [[overskirt]] was extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress from 1874, with back draperies and an overskirt.]] Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. As the bodices grew longer in 1873, the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] was thus introduced into the Victorian dress styles. A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice together. The [[tournure]] was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end. By 1874, skirts began to taper in the front and were adorned with trimmings, while sleeves tightened around the wrist area. Towards 1875 to 1876, bodices featured long but even tighter laced waists, and converged at a sharp point in front. Bustles lengthened and slipped even lower, causing the fullness of the skirt to further diminish. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean. [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An English sheer summer dress with polonaise from around 1875.]] In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure,<ref name=":2" /> as increasingly slimmer silhouettes were favored. This was allowed by the invention of the cuirass bodice, which extends downwards to the hips and upper thighs. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the train was often supported with a cage. The armscye, for the first time in the period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era. === 1880s dress style === [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|The lobster tail bustle of around 1885.]] The saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear inspired tailoring.<ref name=":4" /> Some credited the change in silhouette to the [[Victorian dress reform]], which consisted of a few movements including the [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Costume]] Movement and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress Movement]] in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating for a natural silhouette and lightweight underwear, and rejecting [[tightlacing]]. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing.<ref name=":3" /> Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.<ref name=":4" /> [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|left|thumb|An 1887 portrait of English evening dress with higher shoulder placement, simple trims, and a V-shaped neckline.]] After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, the bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder.<ref name="g4223"/> === 1890s dress style === [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]] By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style.The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4" /> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223"/> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Men's fashion == [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Contemporary stereotypes == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]] Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} kmth9d32jagphk5rem73a7udn0471s3 2822123 2822121 2026-08-14T20:14:59Z Scogdill 1331941 2822123 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] = Wedding Dress of Queen Victoria{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}} = {{Use British English|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox clothing item |image_file = Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.jpg |caption = Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at [[St James's Palace]], London, 10 February 1840. Engraved by S Reynolds after F Lock. |designer = [[Mary Bettans]] (dress)<br>[[William Dyce]] (lace) |year = {{start date|1840}} |type = |material = [[Satin]], [[Honiton lace]] }} [[Queen Victoria]] of the United Kingdom [[wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert|married]] [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] on 10 February 1840. She wore a white wedding dress made from heavy silk satin,<ref>Otnes, Cele and Pleck, Elizabeth (2003). Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, p.31. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-24008-7}}</ref> which made her look more like a bride and less like a queen. The England-made [[Honiton lace]] used for her wedding dress proved an important boost to Devon lace-making.<ref name="staniland">{{cite book|last=Staniland|first=Kay|title=In royal fashion : the clothes of Princess Charlotte of Wales & Queen Victoria, 1796-1901|year=1997|publisher=Museum of London|location=London|isbn=0904818772|page=120|edition=1. publ. in Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Billing|first=Joanna|title=The hidden places of Devon|year=2003|publisher=Travel Publishing|location=Aldermaston, Berks.|isbn=9781902007892|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjNx24op7GcC&pg=PT17|edition=6.}}</ref> Queen Victoria is erroneously credited with starting the tradition of [[white wedding]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-brides-wear-white|title=Why Do Brides Wear White?|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref> and white [[bridal gowns]].<ref name="WP">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/royal-wedding-watch/post/queen-victoria-was-the-first-to-get-married-in-white/2011/04/29/AFIYPmDF_blog.html|author=Flock, Elizabeth|title=Queen Victoria was the first to get married in white|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=30 April 2011|date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Maggie|title=Wedding Planning and Management|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136349140|pages=88–89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6bVaaeNopEC&pg=PT89|author2=Carrie Loveless }}</ref> Perhaps because of the extensive press coverage of the wedding, she may be considered to have popularized the white wedding gown, but other royals<ref>{{cite book|last=Panton|first=Kenneth J.|title=Historical dictionary of the British monarchy|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0810874978|page=371|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiyyueBTpaMC&pg=PA371|quote=When the couple married at Lund, in Sweden, on 26 October 1406, Philippa (sometimes known as Philippa of England) became the first daughter of an English sovereign to wear a white outfit at her wedding.}}</ref> and other women of her time were already wearing white. ==Design== Queen Victoria described her wedding dress in her journal: "I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Albert's beautiful sapphire brooch."{{rp|1=RA QVJ/1840: 10 February [QVJ = Queen Victoria's Journals]}} All royal clothing is deliberately "symbolic" — or semiotic — to some degree. Lucy Worsley interprets the simple white dress as Victoria marrying as a woman rather than as "Her Majesty the Queen."<ref name=":52">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (239) Kay Staniland and Santina M. Levey (and the [https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/ Dreamstress blog]) claim that the salient article from Victoria's wedding dress was the Honiton lace, which was designed to be white and which the dress showcased — which is why her dress was white.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/|title=Queen Victoria's wedding dress: the one that started it all|last=Dreamstress|first=The|date=2011-04-17|website=The Dreamstress|language=en-US|access-date=2025-12-17}}</ref> She designed the dresses of the bridesmaids, which were also white. "Onlookers," Worsley says, commenting on the wedding and Victoria's dress, said Victoria and her party looked like "village girls, presumably rather than a monarch and her ladies in waiting."<ref name=":53">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (244 [of 786], citing Wyndham, ed. (1912) p. 297). Others saw the simplicity of the wedding dress similarly, though less negatively. === The Gown === Victoria's plain satin gown was made from fabric woven in [[Spitalfields]], east London, and trimmed with a deep flounce of hand-made Honiton lace.<ref name="wed">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8466914/How-will-The-Dress-measure-up-to-history.html|title= How will The Dress measure up to history?|access-date=1 May 2011|work= The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Hilary|last=Alexander|date=22 April 2011}}</ref> The Royal Collection has [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress Victoria's wedding dress] and shows three views of it. It comprises a "pointed boned bodice lined with silk, elbow length gathered sleeves; deep lace flounces at neck and sleeves and plain untrimmed skirt en suite, gathered into [the] waist with unpressed pleats."<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress|title=Mary Bettans: Queen Victoria's wedding dress 1840|date=2027 August 13|website=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=}}</ref> (The flounce at the neck can also be called a berthe.) Even with the flounces and trim of lace and orange blossoms, Victoria's gown had fewer decorative elements than most formal dresses or than haute couture. The train of the dress measured {{Convert|18|ft}} in length, although it was too short for the number of bridesmaids to carry without tripping on each other. The slippers she wore matched the dress, likely the same fabric. ==== The Color of the Dress ==== The actual [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress wedding dress] is now cream colored, although Victoria recorded in her journal that her gown was white, as did the newspapers. Because silk was naturally cream colored, the silk fibers had to be bleached to be white, and they yellowed over time. Women's [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]] — including what debutantes wore when presented to the monarch — was traditionally white, and by 1840 white dresses were gaining popularity in the middle classes as well, especially in cotton. White wedding dresses, too, were increasingly popular in Europe and North America as well as in the U.K. at this time. For example, in the U.S. upper-middle-class Frances Todd wore a white wedding dress on 21 May 1839, the same dress her sister Mary wore when she married Abraham Lincoln on 4 November 1842. Sophie of Württembert, Queen of the Netherlands wore white for her wedding on 18 June 1839. While it was not uncommon as a dress color in 1840, the color white suggested wealth and status, even for middle-class wearers, because the world was sooty<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Costume|last=Payne|first=Blanche|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1965|location=New York, New York|pages=451}}</ref> and white required constant maintenance, but it did not suggest royalty or sovereignty. === The Lace === Queen Victoria's dress was decorated with a deep lace flounce, which is a "band of fabric or lace that is fluted [sewn into narrow pleats] and attached to [the] garment by its upper edge only." (Lewandowski 109) Made of the same lace pattern as the flounce of the dress, the veil was four yards in length and '''0.75 yards wide'''. Victoria ordered her handmade lace from East Devon, using a British rather than Belgian or French lace. The laces made in East [[Devon]] were "the finest British bobbin laces."<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus|year=2023|location=New York|pages=27-28}}</ref> Although generally the lace is called [[Honiton]] lace, Queen Victoria's was "made by lacemakers in the coastal village of [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]," "supervised by a Miss Jane Bidney."<ref name=":21" /> The queen's patronage of the Devon lacemakers demonstrated support for English industry, particularly the [[cottage industry]] for lace,<ref name="Khalje1997">{{cite book|last=Khalje|first=Susan|title=Bridal couture: fine sewing techniques for wedding gowns and evening wear|url=https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal|url-access=registration|access-date=30 April 2011|date=1 May 1997|publisher=Krause Publications Craft|isbn=978-0-8019-8757-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal/page/9 9]}}</ref><ref name="wed" /> at a time when Brussels lace was more desirable to the those who wore haute couture. The lace was designed by "the Pre-Raphaelite artist [[William Dyce]],"<ref name=":22" /> head of the then Government School of Design (later known as the [[Royal College of Art]]), and mounted on a white satin dress probably made by [[Mary Bettans]].<ref name="wed" /> The handmade lace motifs were [[appliqué]]d onto cotton machine-made net.<ref name="Lace crafts quarterly">{{cite book|title=Lace crafts quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BblOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=1 May 2011|year=1987|publisher=Eunice Sein}}</ref> === The Jewelry === Orange blossoms also trimmed the dress and made up a wreath, which Victoria wore instead of a tiara over her veil, choosing perhaps to be seen as a bride rather than a monarch. Victoria's jewelry consisted of a necklace and earrings made of diamonds presented to her by the Sultan of Turkey, and a sapphire cluster brooch given to her by Albert the day before. ==After the wedding== {{multiple image | align = left |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria, 1847.jpg |caption1 = Portrait painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]], 1847, as an anniversary present for Prince Albert |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria 60. crownjubilee.jpg |caption2 = Victoria wearing her wedding veil and lace for her Diamond Jubilee Portrait, 1897 }} ===Paintings and Photographs=== While [[photography]] existed in 1840, the results were still too primitive to be considered as a means of preserving what the wedding looked like. No historically accurate portrait was painted of the wedding, although many images of the ceremony were made at the time and later. For example, in 1847, Victoria commissioned [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]] to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding ensemble as an anniversary present for Prince Albert.<ref name="haslem">{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria in her wedding dress by John Haslem after Winterhalter, 1848|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=21&object=421993&row=20&detail=about|publisher=Royal Collections}}</ref> The portrait was also copied as an enamel miniature by [[John Haslem (artist)|John Haslem]].<ref name="haslem" /> A series of photographs taken by [[Roger Fenton]] on 11 May 1854 of Victoria and Albert are erroneously described as wedding or reenactment photographs, with the dress identified as her wedding dress.<ref>{{cite web|last=Avenell|first=Matthew|title=Representations of Queen Victoria in Official Painted & Photographic Portraits|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofEnglish/visual-culture/painting/Victoria-portraits.html|publisher=Victorian Visual Culture|access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Royal weddings in history|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/royalty/8137332/Royal-weddings-in-history.html|access-date=11 June 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> According to the Royal Collection Trust, the images are the first photographs to show Victoria as a queen, rather than as a wife or mother, and that she and Albert are wearing [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Buckingham Palace|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=22&object=2906513&row=21&detail=about|publisher=The Royal Collection|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Victoria & Albert: art & love|year=2010|publisher=Royal Collection |location=London |isbn=9781905686216 |editor=Jonathan Marsden}}, cited on {{Royal Collection|2906513|Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Buckingham Palace 11 May 1854|[[Roger Fenton]]}}</ref> ===Queen Victoria's wedding lace=== {{multiple image | align = right |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91.jpg |caption1 = Carbon print of the Honiton lace veil and wreath decorated with orange blossoms worn by Queen Victoria on her wedding day c.1889–91 from Queen Victoria's Private Negatives, Vol. II c. 1850. |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91 Detail.jpg |caption2 = Another carbon print of the veil showing more lace detail on one edge, along with a clear view of orange blossoms wreath. }} As a mark of support for the Honiton industry, Victoria used her wedding lace and other Honiton laces for the rest of her life, and she had her children do the same.<ref name="staniland" /> Victoria revisited the lace-makers to create the [[royal christening gown]] worn by her children, including Albert Edward (the future [[Edward VII]]).<ref name="Heptinstall2008">{{cite book|author=Simon Heptinstall|title=Devon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgl-bkW9a8sC&pg=PA98|access-date=1 May 2011|date=15 June 2008|publisher=Crimson Publishing|isbn=978-1-85458-426-7|page=98}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This gown was worn for the christening of all subsequent royal babies until the baptism of [[James, Viscount Severn]] in 2008, when a replica was used for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Queen sees grandson's christening|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354474.stm|work=19 April 2008|date=19 April 2008 |publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>Victoria also wore her wedding lace mounted on the dresses she wore to the christenings of her nine children (except for Albert Edward's, for which she wore her [[Order of the Garter|Garter robes]]).<ref name="poaq">{{cite book|last=Munson|first=Richard Mullen & James|title=Victoria : portrait of a queen|year=1987|publisher=British Broadcasting Corp.|location=London|isbn=0563204567|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJdQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22own+wedding+lace%22|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jane |title=Bertie: A Life of Edward VII|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781448161119|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgINPRluu2UC&pg=PA17}}</ref> She wore her Honiton wedding lace to the marriage ceremonies of two of her children, her eldest daughter, [[Victoria, Princess Royal|Victoria]], in 1858,<ref name="poaq" /> and her youngest son, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Leopold]], in 1882.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lane|first=John|title=A Right Royal Feast : Menus from Royal Weddings and History's Greatest Banquets.|year=2011|publisher=David & Charles|location=Newton Abbot|isbn=978-1446301616|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jclWRnYf2-0C&pg=PA21}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Her youngest daughter, [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]], was permitted to wear it as part of [[Wedding dress of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|her wedding gown]] in 1885.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Michaela|author-link=Michaela Reid|title=Ask Sir James : Sir James Reid, personal physician to Queen Victoria and physician-in-ordinary to three monarchs|year=1990|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, N.Y., U.S.A.|isbn=0140130241|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7rZAAAAMAAJ&q=Honiton+lace}}</ref> Victoria also wore the lace to the wedding of her grandson [[George V|George]] (the future George V) to [[Mary of Teck]] in 1893<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolitho|first=Hector|title=Victoria and Albert|year=1938|publisher=Cobden-Sanderson|page=337|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db8KAQAAMAAJ&q=%22my+wedding+lace%22}}</ref> and for her [[Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria|Diamond Jubilee]] official photograph in 1897.<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=Greg|title=Twilight of splendor : the court of Queen Victoria during her diamond jubilee year|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9780470044391|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNa57nc2S0wC&pg=PA15}}</ref> She insisted her daughters order Honiton lace for their wedding ensembles. When Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|title=Queen Victoria, a personal history|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=9780306810855|page=497|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWlnAAAAMAAJ&q=wedding+veil|edition=1st DaCapo Press}}</ref> In 2012 it was reported that while the dress itself had been conserved and displayed at [[Kensington Palace]] that year, the surviving lace was now too fragile to move from storage.<ref name="wed" /> ==See also== {{Portal|Victorian era}} * [[List of individual dresses]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13207649 BBC audio slideshow featuring her wedding dress] {{Queen Victoria}} {{British Royal wedding dresses}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = [[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]] [[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]] '''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion. Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle class who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> ==Women's fashions== [[File:Bermudians Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846.jpg|thumb|[[Demographics of Bermuda|Bermudian]] sisters Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846]] During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike in earlier centuries when women would often help their husbands and brothers in family businesses and in labour, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. The requirement for farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric displayed wealth and status. [[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|Picture of 1850s evening dress with a bertha neckline]] * '''Neckline''': For day, a close neckline was ubiquitous for most of the period. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]].<ref name="h608">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> This cut exposed a woman's shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six-inch deep lace flounce, or with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats.<br />This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening. * '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s were ubiquitous, providing bust and posture support helping to shape the female body into the fashionable silhouette. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bind tightly around the waist, hold and train a person's waistline. It also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. Corsets have been blamed for causing many diseases because of tight lacing, but the practice was less commonplace than generally thought today ([[Effects of tightlacing on the body]]). [[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants would be worn to fill open sleeves.]] * '''Sleeves''': In the early [[Victorian era]], the gigot sleeve of the [[1830s in Western fashion|Romantic Era]] began to tighten into a slimmer line. The [[armscye]] was dropped off the shoulder to emphasize the hourglass silhouette.<ref name="t892">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=My Likeness Taken |date=2005 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0-87338-837-5 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref><br />However, as [[crinoline]]s started to develop in fashion in the 1850s, sleeves turned to be like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, which were usually made of lace, linen, or lawn, with cambric and broderie anglaise, were worn under the sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position, so to act as false sleeves, which was tacked to the elbow-length sleeves during the time. They commonly appear under the bell-shaped sleeves of day dresses. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.<ref name="y040">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref> * '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the undergarment. In earlier days, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats which used horsehair in the weave.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}</ref> By 1856, the hooped underpinning known as the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] was used to give skirts a bouffant shape. The [[1860s in Western fashion|1860s]] saw fullness slowly move toward the back of the skirt, with the "first bustle" [[1870s in Western fashion|1870s]] silhouette requiring the [[crinolette]] and then a [[bustle]] to support the fashionable draperies such as the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]]. The bustle disappeared in the late 1870s and returned in a more shelf-like form in the "second bustle" [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]], with hooped undergarments finally falling out of favor at the start of the [[1890s in Western fashion|1890s]]. [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. === 1830s dress style === [[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]] [[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|left|thumb|English day dress of around the time of Victoria's ascendancy, with bow details and puffed sleeves.]] During the start of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist. Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, worn with a busk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}</ref> A chemise was worn under the corset, and cut relatively low in order to prevent exposure. Over the corset, was the tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Along with the bodice was a long skirt, featuring layers of stiffened petticoats<ref name=":0" /> worn underneath to create fullness; while placing emphasis on the small waist. To contrast the narrow waist, low and wide necklines were used. === 1840s dress style === [[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]] In the 1840s, narrower sleeves, elongated V-shaped bodices, and fuller skirts characterized the dress styles of women. The 1840s style was perceived as conservative and "Gothic" compared to the flamboyance of the 1830s, with the silhouette tightening, lengthening, and a move away from elaborate trims.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> At the start of the decade, bodices lengthened to the natural waist, and met at a point in the front. The popular low and narrow waist was accentuated by the shape of the corset and [[Seam (sewing)|seam]] lines on the bodice. At the start of the decade, sleeves of bodices were tight at the top, but puffed around the area between the elbow and before the wrist because of the [[wikt:mancheron|mancheron]] or gigot.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref> This soon disappeared and was replaced with a tight line. The second half of the decade saw sleeves flaring out from the elbow into a funnel shape; requiring [https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/undersleeves/ undersleeves] to be worn in order to cover the lower arms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=39}}</ref> Skirts lengthened, while widths increased due to the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline] in 1847; becoming a status symbol of wealth. Extra layers of [[Ruffle (sewing)|flounces]] and petticoats also further emphasised the fullness of these wide skirts. To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.<ref name=":1" /> === 1850s dress style === [[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|left|thumb|A day ensemble ca. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]] The hourglass silhouette further was exaggerated in the 1850s. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. In contrast, evening dresses were cut low across the shoulder, often featuring a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha collar]]. Bodices began to extend over the hips, while the sleeves opened further and increased in fullness. Skirts were domelike, with increasing volume as tiers of flounces became popular decorations.[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|A print displaying the fashionable silhouette of the 1850s and then the cage crinoline needed to support it.]] In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together to form a circular structure that could support the large width of the skirt. This was made possible by technology which allowed iron to be turned into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3" /> Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats and was a much more hygienic option.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, the invention of synthetic dyes made brighter colours more accessible and women experimented with gaudy or saturated colours.<ref name=":3" /> === 1860s dress style === [[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress in 1864, showcasing bishop sleeves and simple trim.]] The 1860s saw the shape of skirts change from bouffant and domelike to conical and somewhat elliptical, with more fullness in the back. Trims simplified and became more geometric with skirts simplifying from pleats to gored panels.<ref name="w586">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> [[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|left|thumb|An English silk morning dress from 1865, with machine-made lace.]] During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> Bodices remained relatively unchanged, ending at the natural waistline with wide [[Sleeve|pagoda sleeves]] or bishop sleeves. By the middle of the decade, the shape of the crinoline became flatter in the front and more voluminous behind, often with a train, requiring an elliptical crinoline. In 1868, Skirt widths diminished even further, while fullness and length remained at the back. In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=45}}</ref> === 1870s dress style === [[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle & Polonaise|left|thumb|A fashion plate of early 1870s day and evening dress.]]The style of the 1870s was characterized by an abundance of draperies and trims, beginning the [[1775–1795 in Western fashion|rococo]] revival. The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. The waistline of the early 1870s was high, necklines varied, while armscye remained off the shoulder. An [[overskirt]] was extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress from 1874, with back draperies and an overskirt.]] Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. As the bodices grew longer in 1873, the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] was thus introduced into the Victorian dress styles. A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice together. The [[tournure]] was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end. By 1874, skirts began to taper in the front and were adorned with trimmings, while sleeves tightened around the wrist area. Towards 1875 to 1876, bodices featured long but even tighter laced waists, and converged at a sharp point in front. Bustles lengthened and slipped even lower, causing the fullness of the skirt to further diminish. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean. [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An English sheer summer dress with polonaise from around 1875.]] In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure,<ref name=":2" /> as increasingly slimmer silhouettes were favored. This was allowed by the invention of the cuirass bodice, which extends downwards to the hips and upper thighs. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the train was often supported with a cage. The armscye, for the first time in the period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era. === 1880s dress style === [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|The lobster tail bustle of around 1885.]] The saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear inspired tailoring.<ref name=":4" /> Some credited the change in silhouette to the [[Victorian dress reform]], which consisted of a few movements including the [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Costume]] Movement and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress Movement]] in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating for a natural silhouette and lightweight underwear, and rejecting [[tightlacing]]. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing.<ref name=":3" /> Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.<ref name=":4" /> [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|left|thumb|An 1887 portrait of English evening dress with higher shoulder placement, simple trims, and a V-shaped neckline.]] After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, the bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder.<ref name="g4223"/> === 1890s dress style === [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]] By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style.The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4" /> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223"/> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Men's fashion == [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Contemporary stereotypes == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]] Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} 0popwsit94nsnfr8anx65xf69j7k4sd 2822132 2822123 2026-08-14T21:15:51Z Scogdill 1331941 2822132 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] = Wedding Dress of Queen Victoria{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}} = {{Use British English|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox clothing item |image_file = Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.jpg |caption = Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at [[St James's Palace]], London, 10 February 1840. Engraved by S Reynolds after F Lock. |designer = [[Mary Bettans]] (dress)<br>[[William Dyce]] (lace) |year = {{start date|1840}} |type = |material = [[Satin]], [[Honiton lace]] }} [[Queen Victoria]] of the United Kingdom [[wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert|married]] [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] on 10 February 1840. She wore a white wedding dress made from heavy silk satin,<ref>Otnes, Cele and Pleck, Elizabeth (2003). Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, p.31. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-24008-7}}</ref> which made her look more like a bride and less like a queen. The England-made [[Honiton lace]] used for her wedding dress proved an important boost to Devon lace-making.<ref name="staniland">{{cite book|last=Staniland|first=Kay|title=In royal fashion : the clothes of Princess Charlotte of Wales & Queen Victoria, 1796-1901|year=1997|publisher=Museum of London|location=London|isbn=0904818772|page=120|edition=1. publ. in Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Billing|first=Joanna|title=The hidden places of Devon|year=2003|publisher=Travel Publishing|location=Aldermaston, Berks.|isbn=9781902007892|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjNx24op7GcC&pg=PT17|edition=6.}}</ref> Queen Victoria is erroneously credited with starting the tradition of [[white wedding]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-brides-wear-white|title=Why Do Brides Wear White?|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref> and white [[bridal gowns]].<ref name="WP">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/royal-wedding-watch/post/queen-victoria-was-the-first-to-get-married-in-white/2011/04/29/AFIYPmDF_blog.html|author=Flock, Elizabeth|title=Queen Victoria was the first to get married in white|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=30 April 2011|date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Maggie|title=Wedding Planning and Management|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136349140|pages=88–89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6bVaaeNopEC&pg=PT89|author2=Carrie Loveless }}</ref> Perhaps because of the extensive press coverage of the wedding, she may be considered to have popularized the white wedding gown, but other royals<ref>{{cite book|last=Panton|first=Kenneth J.|title=Historical dictionary of the British monarchy|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0810874978|page=371|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiyyueBTpaMC&pg=PA371|quote=When the couple married at Lund, in Sweden, on 26 October 1406, Philippa (sometimes known as Philippa of England) became the first daughter of an English sovereign to wear a white outfit at her wedding.}}</ref> and other women of her time were already wearing white. ==Design== Queen Victoria described her wedding dress in her journal: "I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Albert's beautiful sapphire brooch."{{rp|1=RA QVJ/1840: 10 February [QVJ = Queen Victoria's Journals]}} All royal clothing is deliberately "symbolic" — or semiotic — to some degree. Lucy Worsley interprets the simple white dress as Victoria marrying as a woman rather than as "Her Majesty the Queen."<ref name=":52">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (239) Kay Staniland and Santina M. Levey (and the [https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/ Dreamstress blog]) claim that the salient article from Victoria's wedding dress was the Honiton lace, which was designed to be white and which the dress showcased — which is why her dress was white.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/|title=Queen Victoria's wedding dress: the one that started it all|last=Dreamstress|first=The|date=2011-04-17|website=The Dreamstress|language=en-US|access-date=2025-12-17}}</ref> She designed the dresses of the bridesmaids, which were also white. "Onlookers," Worsley says, commenting on the wedding and Victoria's dress, said Victoria and her party looked like "village girls, presumably rather than a monarch and her ladies in waiting."<ref name=":53">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (244 [of 786], citing Wyndham, ed. (1912) p. 297). Others saw the simplicity of the wedding dress similarly, though less negatively. === The Gown === Victoria's plain satin gown was made from fabric woven in [[Spitalfields]], east London, and trimmed with a deep flounce of hand-made Honiton lace.<ref name="wed">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8466914/How-will-The-Dress-measure-up-to-history.html|title= How will The Dress measure up to history?|access-date=1 May 2011|work= The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Hilary|last=Alexander|date=22 April 2011}}</ref> The Royal Collection has [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress Victoria's wedding dress] and shows three views of it. It comprises a "pointed boned bodice lined with silk, elbow length gathered sleeves; deep lace flounces at neck and sleeves and plain untrimmed skirt en suite, gathered into [the] waist with unpressed pleats."<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress|title=Mary Bettans: Queen Victoria's wedding dress 1840|date=2027 August 13|website=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=}}</ref> (The flounce at the neck can also be called a berthe.) Even with the flounces and trim of lace and orange blossoms, Victoria's gown had fewer decorative elements than most formal dresses or than haute couture. The train of the dress measured {{Convert|18|ft}} in length, although it was too short for the number of bridesmaids to carry without tripping on each other. The slippers she wore matched the dress, likely the same fabric. ==== The Color of the Dress ==== The actual [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress wedding dress] is now cream colored, although Victoria recorded in her journal that her gown was white, as did the newspapers. Because silk was naturally cream colored, the silk fibers had to be bleached to be white, and they yellowed over time. Women's [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]] — including what debutantes wore when presented to the monarch — was traditionally white, and by 1840 white dresses were gaining popularity in the middle classes as well, especially in cotton. White wedding dresses, too, were increasingly popular in Europe and North America as well as in the U.K. at this time. For example, in the U.S. upper-middle-class Frances Todd wore a white wedding dress on 21 May 1839, the same dress her sister Mary wore when she married Abraham Lincoln on 4 November 1842. Sophie of Württembert, Queen of the Netherlands wore white for her wedding on 18 June 1839. While it was not uncommon as a dress color in 1840, the color white suggested wealth and status, even for middle-class wearers, because the world was sooty<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Costume|last=Payne|first=Blanche|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1965|location=New York, New York|pages=451}}</ref> and white required constant maintenance, but it did not suggest royalty or sovereignty. === The Lace === Queen Victoria's dress was decorated with a deep lace flounce, which is a "band of fabric or lace that is fluted [sewn into narrow pleats] and attached to [the] garment by its upper edge only." (Lewandowski 109) Made of the same lace pattern as the flounce of the dress, the veil was four yards in length and '''0.75 yards wide'''. Victoria ordered her handmade lace from East Devon, using a British rather than Belgian or French lace. The laces made in East [[Devon]] were "the finest British bobbin laces."<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus|year=2023|location=New York|pages=27-28}}</ref> Although generally the lace is called [[Honiton]] lace, Queen Victoria's was "made by lacemakers in the coastal village of [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]," "supervised by a Miss Jane Bidney."<ref name=":21" /> The queen's patronage of the Devon lacemakers demonstrated support for English industry, particularly the [[cottage industry]] for lace,<ref name="Khalje1997">{{cite book|last=Khalje|first=Susan|title=Bridal couture: fine sewing techniques for wedding gowns and evening wear|url=https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal|url-access=registration|access-date=30 April 2011|date=1 May 1997|publisher=Krause Publications Craft|isbn=978-0-8019-8757-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal/page/9 9]}}</ref><ref name="wed" /> at a time when Brussels lace was more desirable to the those who wore haute couture. The lace was designed by "the Pre-Raphaelite artist [[William Dyce]],"<ref name=":22" /> head of the then Government School of Design (later known as the [[Royal College of Art]]), and mounted on a white satin dress probably made by [[Mary Bettans]].<ref name="wed" /> The handmade lace motifs were [[appliqué]]d onto cotton machine-made net.<ref name="Lace crafts quarterly">{{cite book|title=Lace crafts quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BblOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=1 May 2011|year=1987|publisher=Eunice Sein}}</ref> === The Jewelry === Orange blossoms also trimmed the dress and made up a wreath, which Victoria wore instead of a tiara over her veil, choosing perhaps to be seen as a bride rather than a monarch. Victoria's jewelry consisted of a necklace and earrings made of diamonds presented to her by the Sultan of Turkey, and a sapphire cluster brooch given to her by Albert the day before. ==After the wedding== {{multiple image | align = left |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria, 1847.jpg |caption1 = Portrait painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]], 1847, as an anniversary present for Prince Albert |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria 60. crownjubilee.jpg |caption2 = Victoria wearing her wedding veil and lace for her Diamond Jubilee Portrait, 1897 }} ===Paintings and Photographs=== While [[photography]] existed in 1840, the results were still too primitive to be considered as a means of preserving what the wedding looked like. No historically accurate portrait was painted of the wedding, although many images of the ceremony were made at the time and later. For example, in 1847, Victoria commissioned [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]] to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding ensemble as an anniversary present for Prince Albert.<ref name="haslem">{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria in her wedding dress by John Haslem after Winterhalter, 1848|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=21&object=421993&row=20&detail=about|publisher=Royal Collections}}</ref> The portrait was also copied as an enamel miniature by [[John Haslem (artist)|John Haslem]].<ref name="haslem" /> A series of photographs taken by [[Roger Fenton]] on 11 May 1854 of Victoria and Albert are erroneously described as wedding or reenactment photographs, with the dress identified as her wedding dress.<ref>{{cite web|last=Avenell|first=Matthew|title=Representations of Queen Victoria in Official Painted & Photographic Portraits|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofEnglish/visual-culture/painting/Victoria-portraits.html|publisher=Victorian Visual Culture|access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Royal weddings in history|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/royalty/8137332/Royal-weddings-in-history.html|access-date=11 June 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> According to the Royal Collection Trust, the images are the first photographs to show Victoria as a queen, rather than as a wife or mother, and that she and Albert are wearing [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Buckingham Palace|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=22&object=2906513&row=21&detail=about|publisher=The Royal Collection|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Victoria & Albert: art & love|year=2010|publisher=Royal Collection |location=London |isbn=9781905686216 |editor=Jonathan Marsden}}, cited on {{Royal Collection|2906513|Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Buckingham Palace 11 May 1854|[[Roger Fenton]]}}</ref> ===Queen Victoria's wedding lace=== {{multiple image | align = right |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91.jpg |caption1 = Carbon print of the Honiton lace veil and wreath decorated with orange blossoms worn by Queen Victoria on her wedding day c.1889–91 from Queen Victoria's Private Negatives, Vol. II c. 1850. |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91 Detail.jpg |caption2 = Another carbon print of the veil showing more lace detail on one edge, along with a clear view of orange blossoms wreath. }} As a mark of support for the Honiton industry, Victoria used her wedding lace and other Honiton laces for the rest of her life, and she had her children do the same.<ref name="staniland" /> Victoria revisited the lace-makers to create the [[royal christening gown]] worn by her children, including Albert Edward (the future [[Edward VII]]).<ref name="Heptinstall2008">{{cite book|author=Simon Heptinstall|title=Devon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgl-bkW9a8sC&pg=PA98|access-date=1 May 2011|date=15 June 2008|publisher=Crimson Publishing|isbn=978-1-85458-426-7|page=98}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This gown was worn for the christening of all subsequent royal babies until the baptism of [[James, Viscount Severn]] in 2008, when a replica was used for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Queen sees grandson's christening|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354474.stm|work=19 April 2008|date=19 April 2008 |publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>Victoria also wore her wedding lace mounted on the dresses she wore to the christenings of her nine children (except for Albert Edward's, for which she wore her [[Order of the Garter|Garter robes]]).<ref name="poaq">{{cite book|last=Munson|first=Richard Mullen & James|title=Victoria : portrait of a queen|year=1987|publisher=British Broadcasting Corp.|location=London|isbn=0563204567|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJdQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22own+wedding+lace%22|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jane |title=Bertie: A Life of Edward VII|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781448161119|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgINPRluu2UC&pg=PA17}}</ref> She wore her Honiton wedding lace to the marriage ceremonies of two of her children, her eldest daughter, [[Victoria, Princess Royal|Victoria]], in 1858,<ref name="poaq" /> and her youngest son, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Leopold]], in 1882.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lane|first=John|title=A Right Royal Feast : Menus from Royal Weddings and History's Greatest Banquets.|year=2011|publisher=David & Charles|location=Newton Abbot|isbn=978-1446301616|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jclWRnYf2-0C&pg=PA21}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Her youngest daughter, [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]], was permitted to wear it as part of [[Wedding dress of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|her wedding gown]] in 1885.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Michaela|author-link=Michaela Reid|title=Ask Sir James : Sir James Reid, personal physician to Queen Victoria and physician-in-ordinary to three monarchs|year=1990|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, N.Y., U.S.A.|isbn=0140130241|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7rZAAAAMAAJ&q=Honiton+lace}}</ref> Victoria also wore the lace to the wedding of her grandson [[George V|George]] (the future George V) to [[Mary of Teck]] in 1893<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolitho|first=Hector|title=Victoria and Albert|year=1938|publisher=Cobden-Sanderson|page=337|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db8KAQAAMAAJ&q=%22my+wedding+lace%22}}</ref> and for her [[Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria|Diamond Jubilee]] official photograph in 1897.<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=Greg|title=Twilight of splendor : the court of Queen Victoria during her diamond jubilee year|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9780470044391|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNa57nc2S0wC&pg=PA15}}</ref> She insisted her daughters order Honiton lace for their wedding ensembles. When Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|title=Queen Victoria, a personal history|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=9780306810855|page=497|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWlnAAAAMAAJ&q=wedding+veil|edition=1st DaCapo Press}}</ref> In 2012 it was reported that while the dress itself had been conserved and displayed at [[Kensington Palace]] that year, the surviving lace was now too fragile to move from storage.<ref name="wed" /> ==See also== {{Portal|Victorian era}} * [[List of individual dresses]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13207649 BBC audio slideshow featuring her wedding dress] {{Queen Victoria}} {{British Royal wedding dresses}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = [[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]] [[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]] '''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion. Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle class who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> ==Women's fashions== [[File:Bermudians Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846.jpg|thumb|[[Demographics of Bermuda|Bermudian]] sisters Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846]] During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike in earlier centuries when women would often help their husbands and brothers in family businesses and in labour, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. The requirement for farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as cage crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric displayed wealth and status. [[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|Picture of 1850s evening dress with a bertha neckline]] * '''Neckline''': For day, a close neckline was ubiquitous for most of the period. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]].<ref name="h608">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> This cut exposed a woman's shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six-inch deep lace flounce, or with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats.<br />This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening. * '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s or stays were ubiquitous, providing adjustable bust and posture support, helping to shape the body into the fashionable silhouette and preventing horizontal creasing in the bodice. Over the course of the century, almost all women and some men wore corsets. Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility. No evidence exists that the practice was widespread or particularly dangerous. [[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants would be worn to fill open sleeves.]] * '''Sleeves''': In the early [[Victorian era]], the gigot sleeve of the [[1830s in Western fashion|Romantic Era]] began to tighten into a slimmer line. The [[armscye]] was dropped off the shoulder to emphasize the hourglass silhouette.<ref name="t892">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=My Likeness Taken |date=2005 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0-87338-837-5 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref><br />However, as [[crinoline]]s started to develop in fashion in the 1850s, sleeves turned to be like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, which were usually made of lace, linen, or lawn, with cambric and broderie anglaise, were worn under the sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position, so to act as false sleeves, which was tacked to the elbow-length sleeves during the time. They commonly appear under the bell-shaped sleeves of day dresses. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.<ref name="y040">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref> * '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the undergarment. In earlier days, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats which used horsehair in the weave.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}</ref> By 1856, the hooped underpinning known as the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] was used to give skirts a bouffant shape. The [[1860s in Western fashion|1860s]] saw fullness slowly move toward the back of the skirt, with the "first bustle" [[1870s in Western fashion|1870s]] silhouette requiring the [[crinolette]] and then a [[bustle]] to support the fashionable draperies such as the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]]. The bustle disappeared in the late 1870s and returned in a more shelf-like form in the "second bustle" [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]], with hooped undergarments finally falling out of favor at the start of the [[1890s in Western fashion|1890s]]. [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. === 1830s dress style === [[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]] [[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|left|thumb|English day dress of around the time of Victoria's ascendancy, with bow details and puffed sleeves.]] During the start of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist. Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, worn with a busk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}</ref> A chemise was worn under the corset, and cut relatively low in order to prevent exposure. Over the corset, was the tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Along with the bodice was a long skirt, featuring layers of stiffened petticoats<ref name=":0" /> worn underneath to create fullness; while placing emphasis on the small waist. To contrast the narrow waist, low and wide necklines were used. === 1840s dress style === [[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]] In the 1840s, narrower sleeves, elongated V-shaped bodices, and fuller skirts characterized the dress styles of women. The 1840s style was perceived as conservative and "Gothic" compared to the flamboyance of the 1830s, with the silhouette tightening, lengthening, and a move away from elaborate trims.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> At the start of the decade, bodices lengthened to the natural waist, and met at a point in the front. The popular low and narrow waist was accentuated by the shape of the corset and [[Seam (sewing)|seam]] lines on the bodice. At the start of the decade, sleeves of bodices were tight at the top, but puffed around the area between the elbow and before the wrist because of the [[wikt:mancheron|mancheron]] or gigot.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref> This soon disappeared and was replaced with a tight line. The second half of the decade saw sleeves flaring out from the elbow into a funnel shape; requiring [https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/undersleeves/ undersleeves] to be worn in order to cover the lower arms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=39}}</ref> Skirts lengthened, while widths increased due to the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline] in 1847; becoming a status symbol of wealth. Extra layers of [[Ruffle (sewing)|flounces]] and petticoats also further emphasised the fullness of these wide skirts. To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.<ref name=":1" /> === 1850s dress style === [[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|left|thumb|A day ensemble ca. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]] The hourglass silhouette further was exaggerated in the 1850s. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. In contrast, evening dresses were cut low across the shoulder, often featuring a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha collar]]. Bodices began to extend over the hips, while the sleeves opened further and increased in fullness. Skirts were domelike, with increasing volume as tiers of flounces became popular decorations.[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|A print displaying the fashionable silhouette of the 1850s and then the cage crinoline needed to support it.]] In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together to form a circular structure that could support the large width of the skirt. This was made possible by technology which allowed iron to be turned into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3" /> Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats and was a much more hygienic option.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, the invention of synthetic dyes made brighter colours more accessible and women experimented with gaudy or saturated colours.<ref name=":3" /> === 1860s dress style === [[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress in 1864, showcasing bishop sleeves and simple trim.]] The 1860s saw the shape of skirts change from bouffant and domelike to conical and somewhat elliptical, with more fullness in the back. Trims simplified and became more geometric with skirts simplifying from pleats to gored panels.<ref name="w586">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> [[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|left|thumb|An English silk morning dress from 1865, with machine-made lace.]] During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> Bodices remained relatively unchanged, ending at the natural waistline with wide [[Sleeve|pagoda sleeves]] or bishop sleeves. By the middle of the decade, the shape of the crinoline became flatter in the front and more voluminous behind, often with a train, requiring an elliptical crinoline. In 1868, Skirt widths diminished even further, while fullness and length remained at the back. In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=45}}</ref> === 1870s dress style === [[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle & Polonaise|left|thumb|A fashion plate of early 1870s day and evening dress.]]The style of the 1870s was characterized by an abundance of draperies and trims, beginning the [[1775–1795 in Western fashion|rococo]] revival. The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. The waistline of the early 1870s was high, necklines varied, while armscye remained off the shoulder. An [[overskirt]] was extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress from 1874, with back draperies and an overskirt.]] Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. As the bodices grew longer in 1873, the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] was thus introduced into the Victorian dress styles. A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice together. The [[tournure]] was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end. By 1874, skirts began to taper in the front and were adorned with trimmings, while sleeves tightened around the wrist area. Towards 1875 to 1876, bodices featured long but even tighter laced waists, and converged at a sharp point in front. Bustles lengthened and slipped even lower, causing the fullness of the skirt to further diminish. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean. [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An English sheer summer dress with polonaise from around 1875.]] In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure,<ref name=":2" /> as increasingly slimmer silhouettes were favored. This was allowed by the invention of the cuirass bodice, which extends downwards to the hips and upper thighs. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the train was often supported with a cage. The armscye, for the first time in the period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era. === 1880s dress style === [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|The lobster tail bustle of around 1885.]] The saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear inspired tailoring.<ref name=":4" /> Some credited the change in silhouette to the [[Victorian dress reform]], which consisted of a few movements including the [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Costume]] Movement and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress Movement]] in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating for a natural silhouette and lightweight underwear, and rejecting [[tightlacing]]. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing.<ref name=":3" /> Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.<ref name=":4" /> [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|left|thumb|An 1887 portrait of English evening dress with higher shoulder placement, simple trims, and a V-shaped neckline.]] After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, the bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder.<ref name="g4223"/> === 1890s dress style === [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]] By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style.The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4" /> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223"/> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Men's fashion == [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Contemporary stereotypes == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]] Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} 1p2rhinot28ykdahqw3k7rpw5dkk5k6 2822161 2822132 2026-08-15T00:10:59Z Scogdill 1331941 2822161 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] = Wedding Dress of Queen Victoria{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}} = {{Use British English|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox clothing item |image_file = Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.jpg |caption = Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at [[St James's Palace]], London, 10 February 1840. Engraved by S Reynolds after F Lock. |designer = [[Mary Bettans]] (dress)<br>[[William Dyce]] (lace) |year = {{start date|1840}} |type = |material = [[Satin]], [[Honiton lace]] }} [[Queen Victoria]] of the United Kingdom [[wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert|married]] [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] on 10 February 1840. She wore a white wedding dress made from heavy silk satin,<ref>Otnes, Cele and Pleck, Elizabeth (2003). Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, p.31. University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-24008-7}}</ref> which made her look more like a bride and less like a queen. The England-made [[Honiton lace]] used for her wedding dress proved an important boost to Devon lace-making.<ref name="staniland">{{cite book|last=Staniland|first=Kay|title=In royal fashion : the clothes of Princess Charlotte of Wales & Queen Victoria, 1796-1901|year=1997|publisher=Museum of London|location=London|isbn=0904818772|page=120|edition=1. publ. in Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Billing|first=Joanna|title=The hidden places of Devon|year=2003|publisher=Travel Publishing|location=Aldermaston, Berks.|isbn=9781902007892|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjNx24op7GcC&pg=PT17|edition=6.}}</ref> Queen Victoria is erroneously credited with starting the tradition of [[white wedding]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/story/why-do-brides-wear-white|title=Why Do Brides Wear White?|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref> and white [[bridal gowns]].<ref name="WP">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/royal-wedding-watch/post/queen-victoria-was-the-first-to-get-married-in-white/2011/04/29/AFIYPmDF_blog.html|author=Flock, Elizabeth|title=Queen Victoria was the first to get married in white|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=30 April 2011|date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Maggie|title=Wedding Planning and Management|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136349140|pages=88–89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6bVaaeNopEC&pg=PT89|author2=Carrie Loveless }}</ref> Perhaps because of the extensive press coverage of the wedding, she may be considered to have popularized the white wedding gown, but other royals<ref>{{cite book|last=Panton|first=Kenneth J.|title=Historical dictionary of the British monarchy|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0810874978|page=371|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiyyueBTpaMC&pg=PA371|quote=When the couple married at Lund, in Sweden, on 26 October 1406, Philippa (sometimes known as Philippa of England) became the first daughter of an English sovereign to wear a white outfit at her wedding.}}</ref> and other women of her time were already wearing white. ==Design== Queen Victoria described her wedding dress in her journal: "I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Albert's beautiful sapphire brooch."{{rp|1=RA QVJ/1840: 10 February [QVJ = Queen Victoria's Journals]}} All royal clothing is deliberately "symbolic" — or semiotic — to some degree. Lucy Worsley interprets the simple white dress as Victoria marrying as a woman rather than as "Her Majesty the Queen."<ref name=":52">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (239) Kay Staniland and Santina M. Levey (and the [https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/ Dreamstress blog]) claim that the salient article from Victoria's wedding dress was the Honiton lace, which was designed to be white and which the dress showcased — which is why her dress was white.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedreamstress.com/2011/04/queen-victorias-wedding-dress-the-one-that-started-it-all/|title=Queen Victoria's wedding dress: the one that started it all|last=Dreamstress|first=The|date=2011-04-17|website=The Dreamstress|language=en-US|access-date=2025-12-17}}</ref> She designed the dresses of the bridesmaids, which were also white. "Onlookers," Worsley says, commenting on the wedding and Victoria's dress, said Victoria and her party looked like "village girls, presumably rather than a monarch and her ladies in waiting."<ref name=":53">Worsley, Lucy. ''Queen Victoria: Twenty-Four Days That Changed Her Life''. St. Martin's Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 2018.</ref> (244 [of 786], citing Wyndham, ed. (1912) p. 297). Others saw the simplicity of the wedding dress similarly, though less negatively. === The Gown === Victoria's plain satin gown was made from fabric woven in [[Spitalfields]], east London, and trimmed with a deep flounce of hand-made Honiton lace.<ref name="wed">{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8466914/How-will-The-Dress-measure-up-to-history.html|title= How will The Dress measure up to history?|access-date=1 May 2011|work= The Daily Telegraph|location=London|first=Hilary|last=Alexander|date=22 April 2011}}</ref> The Royal Collection has [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress Victoria's wedding dress] and shows three views of it. It comprises a "pointed boned bodice lined with silk, elbow length gathered sleeves; deep lace flounces at neck and sleeves and plain untrimmed skirt en suite, gathered into [the] waist with unpressed pleats."<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress|title=Mary Bettans: Queen Victoria's wedding dress 1840|date=2027 August 13|website=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=}}</ref> (The flounce at the neck can also be called a berthe.) Even with the flounces and trim of lace and orange blossoms, Victoria's gown had fewer decorative elements than most formal dresses or than haute couture. The train of the dress measured {{Convert|18|ft}} in length, although it was too short for the number of bridesmaids to carry without tripping on each other. The slippers she wore matched the dress, likely the same fabric. ==== The Color of the Dress ==== The actual [https://www.rct.uk/collection/71975/queen-victorias-wedding-dress wedding dress] is now cream colored, although Victoria recorded in her journal that her gown was white, as did the newspapers. Because silk was naturally cream colored, the silk fibers had to be bleached to be white, and they yellowed over time. Women's [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]] — including what debutantes wore when presented to the monarch — was traditionally white, and by 1840 white dresses were gaining popularity in the middle classes as well, especially in cotton. White wedding dresses, too, were increasingly popular in Europe and North America as well as in the U.K. at this time. For example, in the U.S. upper-middle-class Frances Todd wore a white wedding dress on 21 May 1839, the same dress her sister Mary wore when she married Abraham Lincoln on 4 November 1842. Sophie of Württembert, Queen of the Netherlands wore white for her wedding on 18 June 1839. While it was not uncommon as a dress color in 1840, the color white suggested wealth and status, even for middle-class wearers, because the world was sooty<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Costume|last=Payne|first=Blanche|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1965|location=New York, New York|pages=451}}</ref> and white required constant maintenance, but it did not suggest royalty or sovereignty. === The Lace === Queen Victoria's dress was decorated with a deep lace flounce, which is a "band of fabric or lace that is fluted [sewn into narrow pleats] and attached to [the] garment by its upper edge only." (Lewandowski 109) Made of the same lace pattern as the flounce of the dress, the veil was four yards in length and '''0.75 yards wide'''. Victoria ordered her handmade lace from East Devon, using a British rather than Belgian or French lace. The laces made in East [[Devon]] were "the finest British bobbin laces."<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus|year=2023|location=New York|pages=27-28}}</ref> Although generally the lace is called [[Honiton]] lace, Queen Victoria's was "made by lacemakers in the coastal village of [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]," "supervised by a Miss Jane Bidney."<ref name=":21" /> The queen's patronage of the Devon lacemakers demonstrated support for English industry, particularly the [[cottage industry]] for lace,<ref name="Khalje1997">{{cite book|last=Khalje|first=Susan|title=Bridal couture: fine sewing techniques for wedding gowns and evening wear|url=https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal|url-access=registration|access-date=30 April 2011|date=1 May 1997|publisher=Krause Publications Craft|isbn=978-0-8019-8757-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/bridalcouturefin0000khal/page/9 9]}}</ref><ref name="wed" /> at a time when Brussels lace was more desirable to the those who wore haute couture. The lace was designed by "the Pre-Raphaelite artist [[William Dyce]],"<ref name=":22" /> head of the then Government School of Design (later known as the [[Royal College of Art]]), and mounted on a white satin dress probably made by [[Mary Bettans]].<ref name="wed" /> The handmade lace motifs were [[appliqué]]d onto cotton machine-made net.<ref name="Lace crafts quarterly">{{cite book|title=Lace crafts quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BblOAAAAYAAJ|access-date=1 May 2011|year=1987|publisher=Eunice Sein}}</ref> === The Jewelry === Orange blossoms also trimmed the dress and made up a wreath, which Victoria wore instead of a tiara over her veil, choosing perhaps to be seen as a bride rather than a monarch. Victoria's jewelry consisted of a necklace and earrings made of diamonds presented to her by the Sultan of Turkey, and a sapphire cluster brooch given to her by Albert the day before. ==After the wedding== {{multiple image | align = left |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria, 1847.jpg |caption1 = Portrait painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]], 1847, as an anniversary present for Prince Albert |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria 60. crownjubilee.jpg |caption2 = Victoria wearing her wedding veil and lace for her Diamond Jubilee Portrait, 1897 }} ===Paintings and Photographs=== While [[photography]] existed in 1840, the results were still too primitive to be considered as a means of preserving what the wedding looked like. No historically accurate portrait was painted of the wedding, although many images of the ceremony were made at the time and later. For example, in 1847, Victoria commissioned [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]] to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding ensemble as an anniversary present for Prince Albert.<ref name="haslem">{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria in her wedding dress by John Haslem after Winterhalter, 1848|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=21&object=421993&row=20&detail=about|publisher=Royal Collections}}</ref> The portrait was also copied as an enamel miniature by [[John Haslem (artist)|John Haslem]].<ref name="haslem" /> A series of photographs taken by [[Roger Fenton]] on 11 May 1854 of Victoria and Albert are erroneously described as wedding or reenactment photographs, with the dress identified as her wedding dress.<ref>{{cite web|last=Avenell|first=Matthew|title=Representations of Queen Victoria in Official Painted & Photographic Portraits|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofEnglish/visual-culture/painting/Victoria-portraits.html|publisher=Victorian Visual Culture|access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Royal weddings in history|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/royalty/8137332/Royal-weddings-in-history.html|access-date=11 June 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> According to the Royal Collection Trust, the images are the first photographs to show Victoria as a queen, rather than as a wife or mother, and that she and Albert are wearing [[Court uniform and dress in the United Kingdom|court dress]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Buckingham Palace|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddings/object.asp?exhibs=WedQVPA&item=22&object=2906513&row=21&detail=about|publisher=The Royal Collection|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Victoria & Albert: art & love|year=2010|publisher=Royal Collection |location=London |isbn=9781905686216 |editor=Jonathan Marsden}}, cited on {{Royal Collection|2906513|Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Buckingham Palace 11 May 1854|[[Roger Fenton]]}}</ref> ===Queen Victoria's wedding lace=== {{multiple image | align = right |width1 = 120 |image1 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91.jpg |caption1 = Carbon print of the Honiton lace veil and wreath decorated with orange blossoms worn by Queen Victoria on her wedding day c.1889–91 from Queen Victoria's Private Negatives, Vol. II c. 1850. |width2 = 117 |image2 = Queen Victoria's Wedding Lace Veil c.1889-91 Detail.jpg |caption2 = Another carbon print of the veil showing more lace detail on one edge, along with a clear view of orange blossoms wreath. }} As a mark of support for the Honiton industry, Victoria used her wedding lace and other Honiton laces for the rest of her life, and she had her children do the same.<ref name="staniland" /> Victoria revisited the lace-makers to create the [[royal christening gown]] worn by her children, including Albert Edward (the future [[Edward VII]]).<ref name="Heptinstall2008">{{cite book|author=Simon Heptinstall|title=Devon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgl-bkW9a8sC&pg=PA98|access-date=1 May 2011|date=15 June 2008|publisher=Crimson Publishing|isbn=978-1-85458-426-7|page=98}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This gown was worn for the christening of all subsequent royal babies until the baptism of [[James, Viscount Severn]] in 2008, when a replica was used for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Queen sees grandson's christening|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354474.stm|work=19 April 2008|date=19 April 2008 |publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>Victoria also wore her wedding lace mounted on the dresses she wore to the christenings of her nine children (except for Albert Edward's, for which she wore her [[Order of the Garter|Garter robes]]).<ref name="poaq">{{cite book|last=Munson|first=Richard Mullen & James|title=Victoria : portrait of a queen|year=1987|publisher=British Broadcasting Corp.|location=London|isbn=0563204567|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJdQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22own+wedding+lace%22|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jane |title=Bertie: A Life of Edward VII|year=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781448161119|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgINPRluu2UC&pg=PA17}}</ref> She wore her Honiton wedding lace to the marriage ceremonies of two of her children, her eldest daughter, [[Victoria, Princess Royal|Victoria]], in 1858,<ref name="poaq" /> and her youngest son, [[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Leopold]], in 1882.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lane|first=John|title=A Right Royal Feast : Menus from Royal Weddings and History's Greatest Banquets.|year=2011|publisher=David & Charles|location=Newton Abbot|isbn=978-1446301616|page=21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jclWRnYf2-0C&pg=PA21}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Her youngest daughter, [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]], was permitted to wear it as part of [[Wedding dress of Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|her wedding gown]] in 1885.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Michaela|author-link=Michaela Reid|title=Ask Sir James : Sir James Reid, personal physician to Queen Victoria and physician-in-ordinary to three monarchs|year=1990|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York, N.Y., U.S.A.|isbn=0140130241|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7rZAAAAMAAJ&q=Honiton+lace}}</ref> Victoria also wore the lace to the wedding of her grandson [[George V|George]] (the future George V) to [[Mary of Teck]] in 1893<ref>{{cite book|last=Bolitho|first=Hector|title=Victoria and Albert|year=1938|publisher=Cobden-Sanderson|page=337|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db8KAQAAMAAJ&q=%22my+wedding+lace%22}}</ref> and for her [[Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria|Diamond Jubilee]] official photograph in 1897.<ref>{{cite book|last=King|first=Greg|title=Twilight of splendor : the court of Queen Victoria during her diamond jubilee year|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9780470044391|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNa57nc2S0wC&pg=PA15}}</ref> She insisted her daughters order Honiton lace for their wedding ensembles. When Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hibbert|first=Christopher|title=Queen Victoria, a personal history|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=9780306810855|page=497|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWlnAAAAMAAJ&q=wedding+veil|edition=1st DaCapo Press}}</ref> In 2012 it was reported that while the dress itself had been conserved and displayed at [[Kensington Palace]] that year, the surviving lace was now too fragile to move from storage.<ref name="wed" /> ==See also== {{Portal|Victorian era}} * [[List of individual dresses]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13207649 BBC audio slideshow featuring her wedding dress] {{Queen Victoria}} {{British Royal wedding dresses}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = [[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]] [[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]] '''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movements in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion. Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle class who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> ==Women's fashions== [[File:Bermudians Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846.jpg|thumb|[[Demographics of Bermuda|Bermudian]] sisters Rosalie, Helen & Ellesif Darrell in 1846]] During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike in earlier centuries when women would often help their husbands and brothers in family businesses and in labour, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. The requirement for farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as cage crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric displayed wealth and status. [[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|Picture of 1850s evening dress with a bertha neckline]] * '''Neckline''': For day, a close neckline was ubiquitous for most of the period. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]].<ref name="h608">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> This cut exposed a woman's shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six-inch deep lace flounce, or with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats.<br />This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening. * '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s or stays were ubiquitous, providing adjustable bust and posture support, helping to shape the body into the fashionable silhouette and preventing horizontal creasing in the bodice. Over the course of the century, almost all women and some men wore corsets. Until the late 1850s, it required 2 people to lace a corset. Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility. No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous. [[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants would be worn to fill open sleeves.]] * '''Sleeves''': In the early [[Victorian era]], the gigot sleeve of the [[1830s in Western fashion|Romantic Era]] began to tighten into a slimmer line. The [[armscye]] was dropped off the shoulder to emphasize the hourglass silhouette.<ref name="t892">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=My Likeness Taken |date=2005 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0-87338-837-5 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref><br />However, as [[crinoline]]s started to develop in fashion in the 1850s, sleeves turned to be like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, which were usually made of lace, linen, or lawn, with cambric and broderie anglaise, were worn under the sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position, so to act as false sleeves, which was tacked to the elbow-length sleeves during the time. They commonly appear under the bell-shaped sleeves of day dresses. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.<ref name="y040">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref> * '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the foundation garments. In earlier days, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats which used horsehair in the weave.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}</ref> By 1856, the hooped underpinning known as the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] was used to give skirts a bouffant shape. The [[1860s in Western fashion|1860s]] saw fullness slowly move toward the back of the skirt, with the "first bustle" [[1870s in Western fashion|1870s]] silhouette requiring the [[crinolette]] and then a [[bustle]] to support the fashionable draperies such as the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]]. The bustle disappeared in the late 1870s and returned in a more shelf-like form in the "second bustle" [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]], with hooped undergarments finally falling out of favor at the start of the [[1890s in Western fashion|1890s]]. [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated by the middle classes with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. === 1830s dress style === [[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]] [[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|left|thumb|English day dress of around the time of Victoria's ascendancy, with bow details and puffed sleeves.]] During the start of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist. Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, worn with a busk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}</ref> A chemise was worn under the corset, and cut relatively low in order to prevent exposure. Over the corset, was the tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Along with the bodice was a long skirt, featuring layers of stiffened petticoats<ref name=":0" /> worn underneath to create fullness; while placing emphasis on the small waist. To contrast the narrow waist, low and wide necklines were used. === 1840s dress style === [[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]] In the 1840s, narrower sleeves, elongated V-shaped bodices, and fuller skirts characterized the dress styles of women. The 1840s style was perceived as conservative and "Gothic" compared to the flamboyance of the 1830s, with the silhouette tightening, lengthening, and a move away from elaborate trims.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> At the start of the decade, bodices lengthened to the natural waist, and met at a point in the front. The popular low and narrow waist was accentuated by the shape of the corset and [[Seam (sewing)|seam]] lines on the bodice. At the start of the decade, sleeves of bodices were tight at the top, but puffed around the area between the elbow and before the wrist because of the [[wikt:mancheron|mancheron]] or gigot.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref> This soon disappeared and was replaced with a tight line. The second half of the decade saw sleeves flaring out from the elbow into a funnel shape; requiring [https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/tag/undersleeves/ undersleeves] to be worn in order to cover the lower arms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=39}}</ref> Skirts lengthened, while widths increased due to the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline] in 1847; becoming a status symbol of wealth. Extra layers of [[Ruffle (sewing)|flounces]] and petticoats also further emphasised the fullness of these wide skirts. To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.<ref name=":1" /> === 1850s dress style === [[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|left|thumb|A day ensemble ca. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]] The hourglass silhouette further was exaggerated in the 1850s. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. In contrast, evening dresses were cut low across the shoulder, often featuring a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha collar]]. Bodices began to extend over the hips, while the sleeves opened further and increased in fullness. Skirts were domelike, with increasing volume as tiers of flounces became popular decorations.[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|A print displaying the fashionable silhouette of the 1850s and then the cage crinoline needed to support it.]] In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together to form a circular structure that could support the large width of the skirt. This was made possible by technology which allowed iron to be turned into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3" /> Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats and was a much more hygienic option.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, the invention of synthetic dyes made brighter colours more accessible and women experimented with gaudy or saturated colours.<ref name=":3" /> === 1860s dress style === [[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress in 1864, showcasing bishop sleeves and simple trim.]] The 1860s saw the shape of skirts change from bouffant and domelike to conical and somewhat elliptical, with more fullness in the back. Trims simplified and became more geometric with skirts simplifying from pleats to gored panels.<ref name="w586">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> [[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|left|thumb|An English silk morning dress from 1865, with machine-made lace.]] During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> Bodices remained relatively unchanged, ending at the natural waistline with wide [[Sleeve|pagoda sleeves]] or bishop sleeves. By the middle of the decade, the shape of the crinoline became flatter in the front and more voluminous behind, often with a train, requiring an elliptical crinoline. In 1868, skirt widths diminished even further, while fullness and length remained at the back. In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=45}}</ref> === 1870s dress style === [[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle & Polonaise|left|thumb|A fashion plate of early 1870s day and evening dress.]]The style of the 1870s was characterized by an abundance of draperies and trims, beginning the [[1775–1795 in Western fashion|rococo]] revival. The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. The waistline of the early 1870s was high, necklines varied, while armscye remained off the shoulder. An [[overskirt]] was extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress from 1874, with back draperies and an overskirt.]] Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. As the bodices grew longer in 1873, the [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] was thus introduced into the Victorian dress styles. A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice together. The [[tournure]] was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end. By 1874, skirts began to taper in the front and were adorned with trimmings, while sleeves tightened around the wrist area. Towards 1875 to 1876, bodices featured long but even tighter laced waists, and converged at a sharp point in front. Bustles lengthened and slipped even lower, causing the fullness of the skirt to further diminish. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean. [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An English sheer summer dress with polonaise from around 1875.]] In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure,<ref name=":2" /> as increasingly slimmer silhouettes were favored. This was allowed by the invention of the cuirass bodice, which extends downwards to the hips and upper thighs. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the train was often supported with a cage. The armscye, for the first time in the period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era. === 1880s dress style === [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|The lobster tail bustle of around 1885.]] The saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear inspired tailoring.<ref name=":4" /> Some credited the change in silhouette to the [[Victorian dress reform]], which consisted of a few movements including the [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Costume]] Movement and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress Movement]] in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating for a natural silhouette and lightweight underwear, and rejecting [[tightlacing]]. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing.<ref name=":3" /> Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.<ref name=":4" /> [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|left|thumb|An 1887 portrait of English evening dress with higher shoulder placement, simple trims, and a V-shaped neckline.]] After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, the bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder.<ref name="g4223"/> === 1890s dress style === [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]] By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style.The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4" /> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223"/> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Men's fashion == [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Contemporary stereotypes == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]] Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} si6phovi6kcws7exej60zg42slr5o08 2 280614 2822099 2811185 2026-08-14T13:49:36Z Atcovi 276019 update 2822099 wikitext text/x-wiki This page displays essays/lab reports/academic projects/other highly-rated works that I've published on Wikiversity. See also [[:Category:Atcovi's Work]], [[User:Atcovi/History]], [[User:Atcovi/French]], and [[User:Atcovi/Science]]. =====2025===== ;Senior Year (4-YR) * [[Association Between Screen Time and Sleep: An Online Survey]] * [[ChatGPT's Essay on Kohlberg's Theory: AI's Use in Academic Writing]] * [[PSYC322 - Adolescent Psychology]] ;Junior Year (4-YR) *[[DART]] =====2024===== ;Junior Year (4-YR) * [[Pedophilia: Innate or Learned?]] * [[Meditation: An Overview and Analysis]] * [[Industrial and organizational psychology]] =====2022===== ;Freshman Year (CC) * [[Gota Go Home! The Downfall of Sri Lanka's War Hero]] * [[Is Wikipedia a legitimate research source?]] * [[Mythomania: A Mental Disorder or a Symptom?]] * [[Introduction to US History]] =====2021===== ;Freshman Year (CC) * [[Beneath the Sandy Beaches: A Tale of Disarray]] * [[The State of the Futureless]] * [[You’ll Never Walk Alone]] * [[Developmental psychology]] =====2020/2021===== ;Senior Year (HS) * [[Evolution of Women: From Frankenstein to Present-Day]] * [[One King, One Law, One Faith]] * [[Constitution Over the Articles of Confederation]] * [[European Expansion: The Impact]] * [[To be Strict or to not be Strict?]] * [[User:Atcovi/StatsProject]] ;Junior Year (HS) * [[AP Biology]]/[[AP Psychology]] =====2019===== ;Junior Year (HS) * [[User:Atcovi/Science/AP Bio Lab Summary]] * [[Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Report]] * [[High school physics/Basics]] ;Sophomore Year (HS) *[[Alcohol and the Roads]] *[[Algebra II]] =====2018===== ;Sophomore Year (HS) * [[User:Atcovi/Summer Reading 2018-19]] *[[AP Environmental Science]] *[[Julius Caesar]], [[Sir Thomas Malory, Le Morte d'Arthur]] *[[The Old Man and The Sea: The Lesson for the Overconfident]] *[[Leopold and Loeb: An Analysis]] *[[Economics and Personal Finance]] *[[High School Chemistry]] ;Freshman Year (HS) *[[Photosynthesis]] *[[Observing the Effects of Concentration on Enzyme Activity]] *[[Animal Farm]], [[The Odyssey]] *[[Geometry]] *a bunch of biology pages that can be found at [[User:Atcovi/Science#2017-2018]]. =====2017===== ;Freshman Year (HS) * [[The Cell Membrane]] * [[Protestant Reformation - Who, What, When, Where, Why?]] * [[Virginia Native Tree Leaf Identification Project]] ;8th Grade * [[History of the Pen]] * [[Garbage Patches]] * [[Esperanza's Development]] * [[Book Reviews/Torn & Risked]] * [[Communication, Goals, Decision Making]] *a bunch of history-related pages that can be found at [[User:Atcovi/History#2016-2017]]. =====2016===== ;8th Grade *[[Human Legacy Course/China's Qin Dynasty]] *[[Speak Math Now!]] *a bunch of geographical/environmental science-related pages that can be found at [[User:Atcovi/Science#2016-2017]]. ;7th Grade *[[U. S. Government]] =====2015===== ;7th Grade *[[Mathematical Properties]] (revamped in January 2018) *[[User:Atcovi/Balanced and Unbalanced Forces]] *[[A Reader's Guide to Annotation]] *[[History of Sri Lanka]] *[[Physical Properties]] ;6th Grade *[[Book Reviews]] *[[Westward Expansion]] =====2014===== ;6th Grade *[[Minecraft]] ;5th Grade *[[Classified Kingdoms]] =====2013===== ;4th Grade * [[US States/Virginia]] * [[User:Atcovi/Engineering: Where Mental Thoughts Are Taken Onto The Real World]] * [[Learning the abc's]] * [[Excretion]], [[Earth's Crust]] * [[What Breaks your Wu'du?]] * See [[User:Atcovi/History#2013-2014]] =====2011===== ;1st/2nd Grade * [[:Category:Memorabilia]] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%20talk:Atcovi&diff=prev&oldid=750617 My talkpage in 2011], consisting of a lot of old, cherishable memories that contributed to the editor that I'm today. [[Category:Atcovi's Work]] ljxudl9h0yqyg6gh275pjd6ni43v6ws 0 285380 2822103 2821950 2026-08-14T14:15:10Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2822103 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260814.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> 0twb4i3rdow6nsekrxknqo99e3p57oj 0 301040 2822096 2818601 2026-08-14T12:52:19Z D.H 52339 2822096 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="width:20%; font-size:13px;" align=right |{{../Other Topics (header)}} |} ==Early history of the twin paradox== {{Lorentzbox|Text={{center|Date of article creation: 9 November 2023; Last major revision: 20 July 2026}}}} a) When was the [[:w:twin paradox]] applied to life forms and human beings? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=pes /><ref group=S name=during /> report that {{slink||Einstein 1911-HU}} discussed the aging of living organisms, and that {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Wiechert 1911-HU}} explicitly discussed the aging of human beings. :*More details in sections {{slink||Human beings in 1911|Twins from 1911 to 1920}}, including newspaper articles from 1911 written by {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Müller 1911-HU}} that clearly show that Einstein was the first to explicitly discuss the aging of human beings as well. b) Who was the first to formulate the principle of maximal proper time along straight worldlines, upon which differential aging in the standard twin paradox is based? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=during /> mention Langevin (1911), Laue (1911). :*More details in section {{slink||Maximal proper time}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Wiechert (1911), Study (1911), Laue (1911-13). c) Who was the first to formulate [[w:Triangle inequality#Reversal in Minkowski space|inverse triangle inequality]] in Minkowski space, which represents the simplest version of the twin paradox? :*See details in section {{slink||Triangle inequality}} with the contributions of Robb (1914-20), Eddington (1922), Rogers (1922). d) Who was the first to show that any influence of proper acceleration on clocks can be neglected in the computation of the twin paradox from the viewpoint of the stay-at-home twin? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=pes /> mention Einstein (1911), Laue (1913). :*More details in section {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}} with the contributions of Einstein (1911), Wiechert (1911), Laue (1913), Lorentz (1913). e) Who was the first to introduce the three clock/brother example that completely removes acceleration from the clock/twin paradox? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=debs /><ref group=S name=alizzi /> date it back to Lange (1927) and Lord Halsbury (1957). :*More details in section {{slink||Relay (three brothers) experiment}} with the contributions of Grünbaum (1911) and Wiechert (1920-22). f) Who was the first to use acceleration as an asymmetry indicator? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref name=cuvaj group=S /><ref group=S name=pes /> mention Langevin (1911), Einstein (1918). :*More details in section {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Sommerfeld (1913), Lorentz (1913), Einstein (1914-20). g) Who was the first to use different frame distribution as asymmetry indicator as an asymmetry indicator? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=pes /> mention Laue (1911-13). :*More details in section {{slink||Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator}} with the contributions of Laue (1911-13), Bloch (1918). h) Who was the first to describe the perspective of the traveler? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=beng /> mention Langevin (1911), Lorentz (1914), Einstein (1918). :*More details in section {{slink||Perspective of the traveler}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Lorentz (1913-14), Einstein (1918), Thirring (1921). i) Who was the first to describe a round-trip experiment in curved spacetime? :*See section {{slink||Curved spacetime}} with the contribution of Becquerel (1922). j) Who was the first to denote the round-trip experiment as paradoxical? :*Historical accounts<ref group=S name=miller /><ref group=S name=during /> point to Laue (1911). :*See section {{slink||Paradoxical?}} for details. k) Who was the first to misunderstand the twin paradox? :*See section {{slink||Misunderstandings}} with the contributions of Berg (1910), Wiechert (1911), Campbell (1911/12), Gruner (1912). l) What were Einstein's contributions? :*See section {{slink||Einstein's contributions}}. ==Human beings in 1911== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" ![[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] |- |{{anchor|Einstein 1905}}In 1905<ref name=einstein05 /> he showed that a clock moving on a round-trip away from A and back along a polygonal or curved path, is retarded with respect to a clock stationary at A by approximately <math>\tfrac{1}{2}t(v/V)^{2}</math> at reunion. For example, a clock on the equator is retarded with respect to a clock on the pole. He described this consequence as being "peculiar" (German: eigentümlich). {{anchor|Einstein 1911-HU}}In a lecture given on January 1911<ref name=einstein11a /> (published in November), he extended this "funny" (German: drollig) experiment to living organisms: {| ! width=55% | Einstein wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Wenn wir z. B. einen lebenden Organismus in eine Schachtel hineinbrächten und ihn dieselbe Hin- und Herbewegung ausführen lassen wie vorher die Uhr, so könnte man es erreichen, dass dieser Organismus nach einem beliebig langen Fluge beliebig wenig geändert wieder an seinen ursprünglichen Ort zurückkehrt, während ganz entsprechend beschaffene Organismen, welche an den ursprünglichen Orten ruhend geblieben sind, bereits längst neuen Generationen Platz gemacht haben. Für den bewegten Organismus war die lange Zeit der Reise nur ein Augenblick, falls die Bewegung annähernd mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit erfolgte! | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |For example, if we put a living organism in a box and make it undergo the same back and forth movement as the clock before, we could achieve that this organism returns to its original location with arbitrary little change after a flight of arbitrary length, whereas completely identical organisms that remained at rest in the original location have long since made room for new generations. To the moving organism, the long journey was only a moment if the movement happened close to the speed of light! |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Two participants of that lecture, {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Müller 1911-HU}}, report that Einstein also talked about the aging of ''human beings''.}} |- !{{anchor|Lämmel 1911-HU}}[[w:Rudolf Lämmel|Lämmel]] |- |He attended Einstein's 1911 lecture and gave a popular report about it in the Swiss newspaper "[[w:Neue Zürcher Zeitung|Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]" published on 28 April 1911,<ref name=lammel /> including additional details. Regarding the round-trip clock experiment he wrote: {| ! width=50% | Lämmel wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Bewegt sich eine Uhr mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit längs einer Geraden, auf der gerichtete Uhren stehen, so scheint die bewegte Uhr, beurteilt vom Standpunkt der ruhenden aus, im oben stizzierten Sinn, stillzustehen. Kehrt die Uhr, nach einem Ruck, mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit wieder zurück zur Zentral-Uhr, so ist, nach Einstein, für den Beobachter bei der Zentral-Uhr die Sache so, als ob ein mit der bewegten Uhr mitgeführter Beobachter (samt dessen Uhr) nicht gealtert hätte. Hinge also des letzteren Alter von den Angaben des ruhenden Beobachters ab, so könnte der von einer großen Reise ins Weltall zurückkehrende Beobachter bei der Zentral-Uhr spätere Generationen antreffen – er selber hätte nicht gealtert. Welche Bedeutung diese ''ad absurdum'' geführte Gedankenspielerei etwa hat, läßt sich heute nicht absehen – vielleicht, ja wahrscheinlich ist sie ohne jeden Einfluß auf die tatsächlichen Verhältnisse. Aber man sieht dabei immerhin, daß die Physik imstande ist, die kühnsten Träume der Phantasie noch – zu überbieten. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Let a clock be moving at speed of light along a line on which regulated clocks are standing, then the moving clock's hand appears to be standing still (in the sense described above) as judged from the standpoint of the resting one. If the clock, after one jolt, comes back with light speed to the central clock, then according to Einstein the matter presents itself to the observer at the central clock, as if the observer comoving with the clock (together with his clock itself) hasn't been grown older. Thus if the age of the latter would depend on the indications of the resting observer, the observer returning from a great journey into space could meet later generations at the central-clock – he himself hasn't been grown older. The importance of this play of thought led ''ad absurdum'' cannot be seen today – maybe, or even probably, it is without any influence on the actual situations. Though at least one can see that physics is able to – surpass – even the boldest dreams and fantasies. |} Lämmel in December 1920 (published 1921)<ref name=lammel2 /> again alluded to Einstein's lectures in Zürich (possibly the one from 1911, and maybe also later ones), describing a discussion between himself and Einstein. After Einstein concluded that the travelers who came back after their journey will probably meet their former contemporaries as old men while they themselves could have been away for only a few years, Lämmel objected that this conclusion is only drawn with respect to rods and clocks, but not with respect to living beings. Einstein responded though, that all processes in the blood, in the nerves etc. are eventually periodical oscillations, i.e. motions. Yet to any such motion the relativity principle applies, thus the conclusion regarding the unevenly rapid aging it permissive. {{Lorentzbox|Text=While the official publication of Einstein's January lecture ({{slink||Einstein 1911-HU}}) mentions the aging of organisms, Lämmel recalls the reference to the aging of a human space traveler ("observer returning from a great journey into space"). This means that Einstein was the first to use human beings in the clock/twin paradox on January 16 which was first published by Lämmel on April 28, 1911. In comparison, {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}} used space travelers in a lecture on April 10 with publication in July, and {{slink||Wiechert 1911-HU}} used space travelers in lectures held between March 25 and May 23 with publication in July/September. It seems very unlikely that before April 28, Lämmel became somehow aware of the content of Langevin's or Wiechert's lectures held a few weeks earlier, in order to use them in his description of Einstein's lecture.}} |- !{{anchor|Langevin 1911-HU}}[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]] |- |On 10 April 1911, published July 1911,<ref name=langevin1 /> he held a now famous lecture popularizing the clock/twin paradox which he derived from the proper time integral as described in {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}}. He demonstrated that a moving radioactive sample of radium is less evolved and less aged and therefore more active at return then the ones that remained in the laboratory. He also used light signals and the Doppler effect to visualize the effect. The most famous part concerned his description of the aging of human space travelers: {| ! width=50% | Langevin wrote ! [[:s:Translation:The Evolution of Space and Time|English Wikisource translation]] |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Cette remarque fournit le moyen, à celui d’entre nous qui voudrait y consacrer deux années de sa vie, de savoir ce que sera la Terre dans deux cents ans, d’explorer l’avenir de la Terre en faisant dans la vie de celle-ci un saut en avant qui pour elle durera deux siècles et pour lui durera deux ans, mais ceci sans espoir de retour, sans possibilité de venir nous informer du résultat de son voyage puisque toute tentative du même genre ne pourrait que le transporter de plus en plus avant. Il suffirait pour cela que notre voyageur consente à s’enfermer dans un projectile que la Terre lancerait avec une vitesse suffisamment voisine de celle de la lumière, quoique inférieure, ce qui est physiquement possible, en s’arrangeant pour qu’une rencontre, avec une étoile par exemple, se produise au bout d’une année de la vie du voyageur et le renvoie vers la Terre avec la même vitesse. Revenu à la Terre ayant vieilli de deux ans, il sortira de son arche et trouvera notre globe vieilli de deux cents ans si sa vitesse est restée dans l’intervalle inférieure d’un vingt-millième seulement à la vitesse de la lumière. Les faits expérimentaux les plus sûrement établis de la physique nous permettent d’affirmer qu’il en serait bien ainsi. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |This remark provides the means for any among us who wants to devote two years of his life, to find out what the Earth will be in two hundred years, and to explore the future of the Earth, by making in his life a jump ahead that will last two centuries for Earth and for him it will last two years, but without hope of return, without possibility of coming to inform us of the result of his voyage, since any attempt of the same kind could only transport him increasingly further. For this it is sufficient that our traveler consents to be locked in a projectile that would be launched from Earth with a velocity sufficiently close to that of light but lower, which is physically possible, while arranging an encounter with, for example, a star that happens after one year of the traveler's life, and which sends him back to Earth with the same velocity. Returned to Earth he has aged two years, then he leaves his ark and finds our world two hundred years older, if his velocity remained in the range of only one twenty-thousandth less than the velocity of light. The most established experimental facts of physics allow us to assert that this would actually be so. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Reading his lecture in full, one finds the word "paradoxical" only in relation to the constancy of light speed, not on relation to the round-trip clock experiment.}} |- !{{anchor|Wiechert 1911-HU}}[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] |- |In lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, submitted July and published September 1911,<ref name=wiechert11 /> he described the round-trip clock experiment with two equal clocks regulated to the same rate and brought to the same pointer position, or by introducing the same chemical process two times, or by introducing ''two life forms that began their life at the same time''. At the end of his paper he applied this to human travelers: {| ! width=50% | Wiechert wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Nehmen wir aber wieder eine Relativgeschwindigkeit an, die bis auf 3 Proz. der Lichtgeschwindigkeit nahekommt, dann wird das Verhältnis der empfundenen Zeitlängen wie 4:1. Das Bild mag etwas weiter noch ausgemalt werden. Denken wir uns, daß ein Beobachter durch den Raum unseres Sternhimmels mit dieser Geschwindigkeit in einer Kreisbahn mit einem Radius von 16 Lichtjahren fährt, dann wird er nach unserer Zeitrechnung nach je 100 Jahren wieder an unserem Sonnensystem vorüberkommen. In seinem Gefährt wird dabei die Zentrifugalkraft so auf ihn einwirken, daß sie gemäß den Relativitätsgesetzen der Einwirkung der Schwerkraft auf uns Erdenbewohner gleich erscheint. Es sind also die wirkenden Kräfte nur so groß, daß der Phantasie die Möglichkeit geboten wird, den Reisenden als menschliches Wesen zu denken. Da hier dauernd <math>\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}</math> ist, fließt die Eigenzeit für den Reisenden viermal langsamer dahin, als für die Bewohner der Gestirne. Wenn er also nach 100 unserer Jahre wieder zu unserem Sonnensystem zurückkehrt, wird er sich selbst nur um 25 Jahre gealtert fühlen. Erreicht er nach der Entwicklung seines Körpers und nach seiner Zeitempfindung ein Alter von 75 Jahren, so entspricht dies doch einer dreimaligen Wiederkehr zu unserem Sonnensystem, also 300 unserer Erdenjahre. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Yet if we again assume a relative velocity approximating the speed of light by 3 percent, then the ratio of the experienced duration of time becomes 4:1. This image can be further extended. Let's imagine that an observer travels with that velocity on a circular path at a radius of 16 light years through the space of our galaxy, then according to our time calculation he passes by our solar system every 100 years. In his vehicle the centrifugal force will act on him in such a way, that in accordance with the relativity laws it will appear to be equal to the force of gravity acting upon the inhabitants of Earth. Thus the acting forces are only thus big, in order to give our fantasy the possibility to imagine the traveler as a human being. Since we have <math>\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}</math> throughout, proper time flows four times slower for the traveler than for the inhabitants of the stars. Thus when he comes back to our solar system after 100 of our years, he will feel to have aged only by about 25 years. If he reaches an age of 75 years according to the development of his body and his own time experience, then this corresponds to a threefold return to our solar system, i.e. 300 of our Earth years. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Wiechert (1915)<ref name=wiechert15 /> later provided a short historical survey of the clock/twin paradox. He referred to the fact that already {{slink||Einstein 1905}} considered the case of two clocks ("Einstein's clock experiment"), and even though [[w:Hermann Minkowski|Minkowski]] himself didn't consider the case, his proper time formula provides the result in a straight forward manner. The latter was done by himself in lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, as well as by Langevin published in July 1911. Wiechert pointed out that he himself and Langevin used "humorist" examples in order to clarify the situation: While Wiechert argued that one has to make a journey in order to stay young, Langevin argued that one has to romp about in a laboratory in order to stay young. Both of them used human beings, arguing that their physical and mental life should have been influenced in the same way as any other process in nature. b) The dates given by Wiechert (1915) are not complete. The correct ones are: *Langevin's lecture on 10 April 1911, published in July. *Wiechert's lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, submitted on July 26, published in September. *He was still unaware of Einstein's lecture from January 1911, published in November 1911.}} |- !{{anchor|Müller 1911-HU}}[[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Müller]] |- |The freelance writer and law student Fritz Müller (who was later known as [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Müller-Partenkirchen]]) attended Einstein's lecture and wrote a popular report about it in the German newspaper "[[w:Berliner Tageblatt|Berliner Tageblatt]]" on 16th and 23rd October 1911,<ref name=muller /> in which he gave further details (compare with {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}}). Regarding the clock/twin paradox he wrote: {| ! width=50% | Müller wrote ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Zwei gleichgehende Uhren sollen je einen Beobachter haben und nebeneinander ruhen. Nun soll die eine mit ihrem Beobachter plötzlich mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit in den Weltenraum hinausreisen. Vorher haben die beiden vereinbart, sich alle Sekunden mit einem Lichtsignal die Zeit zu telegraphieren. [...] In unserem Grenzfall, wo die Reise mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit vor sich geht, müßte der ruhende Beobachter erklären, jene andere Uhr käme in der Zeit überhaupt nicht voran. Die Zeit stünde dort still. Tatsächlich kommen die Einsteinschen Gleichungen zu diesem Resultat. Für den mit der Uhr reisenden Beobachter, sagt Einstein, gelte dasselbe. Das heißt, im Urteil des Zurückbleibenden würde jener niemals alt. „Und wenn er auf einer gebrochenen Reiselinie wieder an seinen Ausgangspunkt zurückkehrte?" fragt man den Vortragenden in der Diskussion. – „So bliebe er in unserem Urteil so jung wie bei der Ausreise," erwidert Einstein mit vollem Ernst, „selbst wenn wir Zurückgebliebenen inzwischen Männer mit weißen Bärten geworden sind – die Gleichungen liefern für jede Richtung der Bewegung, auch für eine gebrochene Bewegung, unerschütterlich die selben Resultate." – Wir sehen einander an. Das klingt märchenhaft. Märchenhaft? Gewiß, die alten Märchen vom Mönch von Heisterbach, vom Rip van Winkle, von Urashima Taro steigen auf. Merkwürdig, wie die Volksphantasie bei den Deutschen, bei den Amerikanern, bei den Japanern in der gleichen Richtung gearbeitet hat – alle drei Märchen erzählen ja von Leuten, deren Leben still steht, viele hundert Jahre lang, während die andern altern. So fanden sie bei ihrer Rückkehr ein anderes Land und eine andere Generation. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Two synchronous clocks at rest next to each other, shall each be accompanied by an observer. Now one of them, together with its observer, suddenly travels into space at the speed of light. Previously, both have arranged that every second they telegraph their time to each other using light signals. [...] In our limiting case where the journey happens at light speed, the resting observer would have to declare that the other clock would not proceed in time at all. Time would stand still at this place. Einstein's equations indeed produce this result. As to the observer traveling with the clock, says Einstein, the same is true. That means in the judgment of the remaining one, the other one would never become old. Then the lecturer [i.e. Einstein] was asked in the discussion: "And if he comes back to his starting point on a curved travel path?", to which Einstein replied in full earnest: "Then in our judgment he would remain as young as he was at departure, even if we remaining ones became men with white beards in the meantime, the equations unshakably give the same result in every direction of motion, also for curved motion". We look at each other. That sounds fabulous. Fabulous? Of course, the old fairy tales of [[w:Heisterbach Abbey|w:The monk of Heisterbach]] or [[w:Rip Van Winkle]] or [[w:Urashima Tarō]] come forward. Strange, how the folk fantasy of the Germans, the Americans, the Japanese worked in the same direction, all three fairy tales indeed tell about people whose life stands still, many hundred years long, while the other ones grow old. Thus they found another country and another generation when they returned. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Müller's account confirms {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} that Einstein indeed mentioned human beings, but his description also suggests that Einstein was the first to use mutually sent light signals. However, as this was published in October, it cannot be excluded that Müller's description of light signals was influenced by {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}}, published in July, in which light signals were used as well.}} |} ==Twins from 1911 to 1920== We now provide a list of authors who employed ''twins'', i.e. ''two'' life forms or humans that initially were of ''same age'' when the round-trip began: {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Date !! Description |- |[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]<ref name=wiechert11 /> |1911 |Two life forms that begin their life at the ''same time'' (German: "Zwei Lebewesen [..] die ihr Leben gleichzeitig beginnen"), of which the moving one returns retarded in its progression with respect to the stationary one. |- |[[w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]]<ref name=gruner /> |1912 |Two persons of ''same age'' (French: "deux personnes du même âge"), of which the moving one returns less developed than stationary one. |- |[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]<ref name=laue3 /> |1913 |The moving life form returns younger than its ''former agemates'' (German: "ehemaligen Altersgenossen"). |- |[[w:Hermann Weyl|Weyl]]<ref name=weyl /> |Easter 1918 | {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Von zwei Zwillingsbrüdern, die sich in einem Weltpunkt A trennen, bleibe der eine in der Heimat (d. h. ruhe dauernd in einem tauglichen Bezugsraum), der andere aber unternehme Reisen, bei denen er Geschwindigkeiten (relativ zur »Heimat«) entwickelt, die der Lichtgeschwindigkeit nahekommen; dann wird sich der Reisende, wenn er dereinst in die Heimat zurückkehrt, als merklich jünger herausstellen denn der Seßhafte. |Suppose we have two twin-brothers who take leave from one another at a world-point A, and suppose one remains at home (that is, permanently at rest in an allowable reference-space), whilst the other sets out on voyages, during which he moves with velocities (relative to “home”) that approximate to that of light. When the wanderer returns home in later years he will appear appreciably younger than the one who stayed at home. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=Weyl was the first to ''explicitly use twins'' in relation to the round-trip experiment. The fourth edition (1920) of that book was translated from German into English and French in 1922.}} |- |[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]]<ref name=einstein20 /> |1920/21 |{{Anchor|Einstein 1921-TW}} {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Trifft A wieder bei B ein, so kann es sich ereignen, daß der beharrende Zwilling inzwischen 60 Erdjahre alt geworden ist, während der zurückkehrende nur 15 Jahre zählt, oder sich gar noch im Säuglingsstadium befindet. [..] Bei diesen Zwillingen, erklärte Einstein, haben wir zunächst eine ''Gefühls -Paradoxie'' vor uns. Eine ''Denk-Paradoxie'' würde indeß nur dann vorliegen, wenn sich für das Verhalten der beiden Geschöpfe kein zureichender Grund anführen ließe. |If A then returns to B, it may happen that the twin who stayed at home is now sixty years old, whereas the wanderer is only fifteen years of age, or is perhaps only an infant still. [..] In the case of these two twins, Einstein declared, we have merely a paradox of ''feeling''. It would be a paradox of ''thought'' only if no sufficient ground could be suggested for the behaviour of these two creatures. |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=This was based on an interview of Einstein by Moszkowski. While the expression "clock paradox" was used since 1911/12 (see section {{slink||Paradoxical?}}), this seems to be the first time that it was rebranded as "twin paradox". The copyright mark indicates 1920, while the title page indicates 1921. The translation from German into English also appeared in 1921.}} |} ==Maximal proper time== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]] 1911 |{{anchor|Langevin 1911-PT}}In April 1911 (published July),<ref name=langevin1 /> he described the round-trip experiment without formulas using two portions of matter present at two events happening at the same place. The ''integration of proper time'' along the entire wordlines shows that the portion of matter that starts a closed cycle by receding and finally coming back, will have a ''smaller proper time'' than the one that stayed behind. In October 1911 (published 1912),<ref name=langevin2 /> Langevin again showed that the portion of matter that described a closed cycle will have a ''smaller proper time'' <math>R</math> than the one that stayed in an inertial frame, which is defined by the equation: :<math>\begin{matrix}V^{2}\left(t-t_{0}\right)^{2}=d^{2}-R\\ \left[d^{2}=\left(x-x_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(y-y_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(z-z_{0}\right)^{2}\right] \end{matrix}</math> |- |[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]<ref name=wiechert11 /> Lectures March-May 1911 submitted July published September |{{anchor|Wiechert 1911-PT}}Let two equal processes be observed in two equal material systems colocated in two moments (1) and (2), and let there velocities have been changed in arbitrarily different ways in the meantime. It follows that the ratio of advancement of those processes is given by the two intervals <math>\Delta\tau </math> of their respective ''proper times''. He concluded that any round-trip clock experiment can be easily comprehended from that theorem by computation. The corresponding integral is: :<math>\Delta\tau=\int_{1}^{2}d\tau=\int_{1}^{2}dt\sqrt{1-\frac{\mathfrak{v}^{2}}{c^{2}}}</math> |- |[[w:Eduard Study|Study]]<ref name=study /> June 1911 |Minkowski's concept of worldlines implies that the straight path between two points of the same worldline is the ''longest'' among all paths between those points, if the path length on a worldline is defined by the related proper time. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Study's book was purely mathematical without mentioning clocks or the round-trip experiment, alluding to his result only in a footnote.}} |- |[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] 1911-13 |{{anchor|Laue 1911/12-PT}}In December 1911 (published 1912),<ref name=laue1 /> Laue showed without formulas that the round-trip experiment is represented by a curved worldline, which at worldpoint A decomposes into a row of curves, after which all of them will be re-united at worldpoint B to a single line. Of all curves connecting the points A and B having time-like direction throughout, the straight connection has the ''longest proper time.'' {{anchor|Laue 1912/13-PT}}In December 1912 (published 1913) in the second edition of this relativity book,<ref name=laue1 /> Laue described the proper time integral between events 1 and 2 of a slowly accelerated clock covering a broken line and a stationary clock covering a straight worldline. Of all worldlines covering 1 and 2, the straight line has the ''longest proper time''. Therefore the traveling clock in the round-trip experiment is retarded at reunion, because its curved worldline corresponds to a shorter proper time. This result he presented in terms of the following inequality, of which the right-hand side refers to the straight curve of the stationary clock, while all others possible curves are represented on left-hand side: :<math>\tfrac{1}{c}\int_{1}^{2}\sqrt{du^{2}-\left(dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2}\right)}<\tfrac{1}{c}\int_{1}^{2}du</math> {{Lorentzbox|Text={{anchor|Sommerfeld 1913-PT}}Similar treatments can be found in the textbooks of [[w:Arnold Sommerfeld|Sommerfeld]] (1913),<ref name=sommerfeld /> [[w:Hermann Weyl|Weyl]] (1918),<ref name=weyl /> [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921),<ref name=pauli /> [[w:August Kopff|Kopff]] (1921),<ref name=kopff /> [[w:Jean Becquerel|Becquerel]] (1922).<ref name=becqu1 />}} |} ==Triangle inequality== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |valign=top|[[w:Alfred Robb|Robb]] 1914-1920 |{{anchor|Robb 1914-TR}}In 1914<ref name=robb1 /> he showed that there are three types of triangles formed by intervals in Minkowski space, depending on whether one deals with "separation lines" (spacelike intervals), "optical lines" (lightlike intervals), or "inertia lines" (timelike intervals representing the path of nonaccelerated particles defined by <math>{\scriptstyle \left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(y_{1}-y_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(z_{1}-z_{0}\right)^{2}-c^{2}\left(t_{1}-t_{0}\right)^{2}<0}</math>). As to a triangle formed by inertia lines, he showed that the sum of a certain two sides is ''less'' than that of the third one. {{Lorentzbox|Text=So the triangle inequality derived from time-like intervals in Minkowski space is ''[[w:Triangle inequality#Reversal in Minkowski space|inverse]]'' to the inequality in Euclidean space. This inverse inequality directly represents the most simple variant of the twin paradox: the traveler follows two sides of the time-triangle, while the stay-at-home observer follows the third side indicating maximal proper time.}} [[File:RobbTriangle.svg|right|150px]] In 1920<ref name=robb2 /> Robb gave a numerical example of the triangle ABC with time-like intervals ("inertia lines") defined by coordinates :<math>\begin{matrix} & x & y & z & t\\ A\ & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\ B\ & 0 & 0 & 0 & 10\\ C\ & 4 & 0 & 0 & 5 \end{matrix}</math> which he plugged into :<math>\bar{s}^{2}=\left(t_{1}-t_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(y_{1}-y_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(z_{1}-z_{0}\right)^{2}</math> from which he obtained the sides AB=10, AC=3, CB=3 and the inequality <math>AC+CB<AB</math>. |- |[[w:Arthur Eddington|Eddington]]<ref name=edding2 /> 1922 |He distinguished between the "space-triangle" for spacelike intervals, and the "time-triangle" for time-like intervals. The latter is measured with a clock from A to B and from B to C, with the sum of those readings ''is always less'' than the reading of a clock measuring directly from A to C. In the ordinary space-triangle any two sides are together greater than the third side; in the time-triangle two sides are together ''less'' than the third side. |- |Rogers<ref name=rogers /> 1922 |He showed that the "pure time-triangle" C, A, B (in their proper time order) satisfies the relation <math>\cosh C=\tfrac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}}{2\alpha\beta}</math>, where <math>\cosh C</math> denotes the unit-scalar product of the vectors CA, CB, and <math>\alpha,\beta,\gamma </math> the real and positive intervals BC, CA, AB. Since <math>\alpha>\beta </math> and <math>\cosh C>1</math>, it follows that <math>\alpha>\beta+\gamma </math>. That is, "the greatest side of pure time-triangle is greater than the sum of the other two sides". It follows at once that the stationary value of the proper time integral is an "absolute maximum". |} ==Negligibility of proper acceleration== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |valign=top |[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 1905-1918 |In 1905,<ref name=einstein05 /> Einstein used velocity time dilation <math>\tau=t\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{V}\right)^{2}}</math> to derive the retardation of a clock performing a round-trip with constant speed <math>v</math> along a polygonal path or a continuously curved line, without mentioning any influence of acceleration at turnaround. {{anchor|Einstein 1911-VA}} In 1911 (published 1912),<ref name=einstein3 /> Einstein said that special relativity doesn't say anything about what happened to the clock's pointer position during the acceleration that changes the clock's direction along the round-trip, yet the influence of this change must be getting smaller the longer the clock ''is moving uniformly'', i.e. the longer one chooses the dimensions of the path. {{anchor|Einstein 1912-VA}}In an unpublished manuscript on special relativity from 1912,<ref name=einst12manu /> he pointed out that any influence of acceleration during the round-trip experiment, can be neglected if one makes the time of acceleration negligible with respect to the total time of motion along the polygonal path. {{anchor|Einstein 1914a-VA}}In a letter from April 1914,<ref name=einstpetz /> Einstein showed that any ''finite'' acceleration at turnaround during the round-trip experiment can only influence the clock in a ''finite'' way, thus it can be neglected by minimizing the time of acceleration with respect to the time of uniform translation. So it ''must be concluded'' that the clock is retarded at reunion after traveling on a polygonal path. {{anchor|Einstein 1914b-VA}}During a conversation in May 1914,<ref name=rowe group=S /> Einstein is reported to have replied that the accelerations during the round-trip are "irrelevant for the amount of the time difference". (Compare with {{slink||Einstein 1914b-AC}}) {{anchor|Einstein 1918-VA}}In his famous "Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity" from 1918,<ref name=einstein18 /> Einstein pointed out that any effect of velocity changes at turnaround must be limited, thus the traveling clock must be retarded at reunion due to time dilation if one makes the path AB and back along the round-trip long enough. (Compare with {{slink||Einstein 1918-AC}}) |- |[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]<ref name=wiechert11 /> 1911 |{{Anchor|Wiechert 1911-VA}}[[File:WiechertTwin.svg|110px|right]] He demonstrated that differential aging along the round-trip cannot be caused during the passage from one velocity to another (i.e. acceleration) at turnaround, because the same result also follows when ''both'' A and B experience the ''same velocity changes'' with respect to another frame, only with the difference that B has relative velocities <math>+u</math> and <math>-u</math> for a long time, while A is brought after a short time from relative velocity <math>+u</math> to relative rest at which it remains a long time, and then it is brought to relative velocity <math>-u</math> for a short time. {{Lorentzbox|Text=He was probably the first to use an example in which both accelerate with same magnitude.}} |- |[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]<ref name=laue3 /> 1913 |{{anchor|Laue 1913-VA}}He showed that the problem of the influence of acceleration at turnaround in the round-trip experiment, can be eliminated by ''arbitrarily'' enlarging the time in inertial motion. {{Lorentzbox|Text=This is the same argument as given in {{slink||Einstein 1911-VA}}. The Einstein-Laue argument was also used by others such as [[w:Hans Thirring|Thirring]] (1921)<ref name=thirring /> or [[w:Max Born|Born]] (1921).<ref name=born />}} |- |[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]]<ref name=lorentz1 /> 1913 |He pointed out that any effect of acceleration on the traveling clock at turnaround, can be separated from the time dilation effect since only the latter depends on the distance traversed along the round-trip. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Similarly, [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921) stated that the arising infinitesimal accelerations at turnaround are certainly independent of the total travel time and ''therefore easy to eliminate''.<ref name=pauli />}} |} ==Relay (three brothers) experiment== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:de:Fritz Grünbaum (Physiker)|Grünbaum]]<ref name=gbaum /> 1911 |He discussed a one-way time dilation experiment in which the first clock is set into motion from the origin and then moving to the second clock. He argued that one can avoid the problem of acceleration experienced by the first clock when set into motion, by replacing it with a ''third'' clock that is already in motion with constant velocity and is synchronized at the origin with the first clock. {{Lorentzbox|Text=While Grünbaum didn't discuss round-trip experiments, his introduction of a third clock in order to avoid acceleration is the basis of the three-brother experiment.}} |- |valign=top|[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] 1920-1922 |In 1920 (published 1921),<ref name=wiechert20 /> Wiechert explained how to completely remove acceleration from the round-trip experiment: Bodies A, B, C move undisturbed and non-accelerated in different directions. A and B pass each other at time (1), B and C pass each other at a later time (2), and C and A finally pass each other at an even later time (3). So in this setup, the condition of C is the continuation of the condition of B. On any of the three bodies one can count the oscillations of light of a certain spectral-line, in which case relativity predicts that the ''combined sum of all oscillations'' on B+C is smaller than the number of oscillations on A alone. Wiechert also held that one can replace the light oscillations by the life functions of human-like beings which live on A, B and C. For instance, while the inhabitants of B+C only had time for one meal, there were arbitrarily many generations on A who follow after each other by death and birth. [[File:Wiechert1922a.png|180px|right]] In 1921 (published 1922),<ref name=wiechert21 /> Wiechert extended his previous acceleration-free round-trip experiment to an arbitrary number of non-accelerated bodies <math>B_{1}</math>, <math>B_{2}</math>, ..., which constitutes a "relay" (German: Stafette) starting from body A and back again. The first B passes A and moves away, and after some time the last B comes back to A. Since any B body continues the fate of the previous one, all bodies <math>B_{1}</math>, <math>B_{2}</math>, ..., combined have emitted fewer oscillations than A alone during the relay race. Wiechert pointed out that instead of light oscillations one can also choose the aging of life forms. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Such relay experiments were later independently rediscovered in English language papers<ref name=debs group=S /> such as by Lange (1927)<ref group=S name=lange /> in which the brothers synchronize their times when they pass each other (“three brother experiment”).}} |} ==Acceleration as asymmetry indicator== While it was known that any direct influence of [[w:proper acceleration]] on clocks can be neglected in the computation of the inertial frame of the stay-at-home twin (see previous section {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}}), the very fact that only one of them is accelerating is still useful as an asymmetry argument in order to show that there is no contradiction to the relativity principle. {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]<ref name=langevin1 /> 1911 |{{Anchor|Langevin 1911-AC}}He derived differential aging in the round-trip experiment using the proper time integral along worldlines (see {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}}) and used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: The result of the round-trip experiment is "another example of the absolute character of acceleration" in which the "asymmetry occurred because only the traveler, in the middle of his journey, has undergone an acceleration that changes the direction of his velocity". |- |[[w:Arnold Sommerfeld|Sommerfeld]]<ref name=sommerfeld /> 1913 |After he showed (see {{slink||Sommerfeld 1913-PT}}) that retardation of time in the round-trip experiment derived from the proper time integral rests on the assumption that the clock's rate ''only depends on its momentary velocity'' (now called "clock hypothesis"), he used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: There is no contradiction to the relativity principle since one of the clocks has to be accelerated in order to come back, thus the retardation in the round-trip experiment does not demonstrate "motion", but "accelerated motion". |- |[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]] 1913<ref name=lorentz1 /> |After he derived differential aging in the round-trip experiment from velocity time dilation and pointed out the negligibility of proper acceleration for the computation, he used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: There is no contradiction to the relativity principle, since one of them changes velocity and accelerates; the relativity principle does not require symmetry between inertial and non-inertial observers. |- |valign=top|[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 1914-1920 |{{anchor|Einstein 1914b-AC}} During a conversation in 1914,<ref name=rowe group=S /> Einstein is reported to have said that moving clock B is retarded because it was accelerating in contrast to clock A; while those accelerations are ''irrelevant'' for the ''amount'' of the time difference, their ''presence'' nevertheless cause B to fall behind ("accelerated motions are absolute"). {{anchor|Einstein 1918-AC}}In his famous "Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity" from 1918<ref name=einstein18 />, Einstein pointed out the negligibility of velocity changes from the viewpoint of an inertial frame (see {{slink||Einstein 1918-VA}}). Then he used ''acceleration as an asymmetry indicator'' in order to show, that there is no contradiction to the relativity principle, because relativity only predicts the equivalence of non-accelerated inertial frames: "only K is such a frame while K' is temporarily accelerated, thus the retardation of U2 with respect to U1 cannot be used to construe a contradiction against the theory." {{anchor|Einstein 1920-AC}}Einstein is reported to have said in an interview from 1920:<ref name=einstein20 /> {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Bei diesen Zwillingen, erklärte Einstein, haben wir zunächst eine ''Gefühls-Paradoxie'' vor uns. Eine ''Denk-Paradoxie'' würde indeß nur dann vorliegen, wenn sich für das Verhalten der beiden Geschöpfe kein zureichender Grund anführen ließe. Dieser Grund für das Jüngerbleiben des A ergibt sich vom Gesichtspunkt der speziellen Relativitätstheorie aus der Tatsache, daß das betreffende Geschöpf — und nur dieses — Beschleunigungen erlitten hat. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |In the case of these two twins," Einstein declared, "we have merely a paradox of ''feeling''. It would be a paradox of ''thought'' only if no sufficient ground could be suggested for the behaviour of these two creatures . This ground, which counts for the comparative youth of A, is given, from the point of view of the special theory of relativity, by the fact that the creature in question, and only this creature, has been subject to accelerations." |} In a discussion from 1922,<ref name=morand /> Einstein is reported to have said that there is no contradiction in the round-trip experiment (in terms of a train leaving the station and returning later): The relativity principle is not applicable to this case, because the train is not in a Galilean system (i.e. inertial frame) any longer during the period of velocity change at turnaround, i.e. the ensemble of two frames having velocities in opposite direction is not an inertial frame. There is no reciprocity between a frame that changes direction and one that doesn't. |} ==Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator== Because any direct influence of proper acceleration on the traveling clock at turnaround can be neglected (see {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}}), the importance of {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator}} is limited to the mere fact that it reveals that only the traveler was in a non-inertial frame as only he changed his inertial frames, thus instead of emphasizing the occurrence of proper acceleration at turnaround, it's possible to describe the asymmetry more geometrically by emphasizing the different distribution of inertial frames of the twins along their worldlines. {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |valign=top|[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] 1911-1913 |{{Anchor|Laue 1911/12-VA}} In 1911/12,<ref name=laue1 /> he pointed out that during the time of separation, that clock is most advanced which was at rest in an inertial frame all the time; namely there is ''always one, and only one inertial frame'', in which the locations of separation and re-encounter lie in the same geometric point. He clarified this fact by alluding to different paths in spacetime (compare with {{slink||Laue 1911/12-PT}}). In 1912/13,<ref name=laue2 /> he argued that in the round-trip experiment, we indeed can decide, which one of the clocks was steadily at rest in one and the same reference system, and which one was in the meantime at rest in two or more such systems. Among them there is of course a real physical difference. He clarified this fact by alluding to different paths in spacetime (compare with {{slink||Laue 1912/13-PT}}). In 1913<ref name=laue3 /> Laue pointed out: {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Aber nach unseren Voraussetzungen ruht während der Zeit der Trennung die erste Uhr in ''einem'' berechtigten Bezugssystem, die zweite hingegen ruht zwar sowohl bei der Hin- wie bei der Rückbewegung in berechtigten Bezugssystemen, aber notwendig in ''zwei verschiedenen. Deshalb'' unterscheiden sich beider Schicksale physikalisch. Ließe man die zweite Uhr in der ihr anfangs erteilten Bewegung und schickte man ihr dafür die erste Uhr nach einiger Zeit mit größerer Geschwindigkeit nach, so würde beim Zusammentreffen die erste gegen die zweite zurückgeblieben sein; denn jetzt hat die erste während der Trennung in zwei verschiedenen Systemen geruht. (Footnote: Dem naheliegenden Einwand, daß wir über den Gang einer Uhr während eines Geschwindigkeits''wechsels'' nichts aussagen können, begegnet man am einfachsten mit dem Hinweis, daß man die Zeiten der gleichförmigen Bewegung ''beliebig'' groß gegen die der Beschleunigung machen kann.) | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | However, by our presuppositions, one clock is at rest in ''one'' valid reference system during the time of separation, while the second one is at rest in valid reference systems both during the forward- and the backward motion, but necessarily in ''two different ones. Therefore'' the two fates differ physically. If the second clock remains in the motion which was given to it at the start, and if after some time it is followed by the first clock with greater velocity, then the first one would be retarded with respect to the second one at the encounter; since now it was the first one that was at rest in two different systems during the separation. (Footnote: The objection which is near at hand, that we cannot say anything about the rate of a clock during a velocity ''change'', can be met most simply by the allusion, that we can render the times of uniform motion ''arbitrarily'' great with respect to acceleration..) |} |- |[[w:Werner Bloch|Bloch]]<ref name=bloch /> September 1918 |{{anchor|Bloch 1918-VA}} He represented the frames with three movable slots K, K' and K”, provided with hooks on which one can hang clocks at the origins of K and K'; while one clock always hangs on a hook of slot K, the other clock moved away with K' and after some time was transferred (neglecting any effect of acceleration) by a mechanical device to slot K” that moves in the other direction, by which it comes back; there is no contradiction to the relativity principle, as one clock rested in one inertial frame while the other one rested in two such frames. |} ==Perspective of the traveler== {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]<ref name=langevin1 /> 1911 |{{anchor|Langevin 1911-LI}}[[Image:rstd4.gif|170px|right]] After deriving differential aging from the proper time integral in {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}} and using human beings in {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}}, he described the perspectives of both observers using light signals and the Doppler effect. When they separate they see each other live 200 times slower, while at return they see each other live 200 times faster. So ''from the explorer's viewpoint'', in the first year he sees the Earth perform the actions of two days, while in the second year he sees the Earth perform the actions of two centuries. The asymmetry can be seen by noticing, that the observer on Earth in 200 years sees the explorer performs the actions of 1 year. Then the explorer turns around, after which the observer on Earth in 2 days sees the projectile perform the actions of another year. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Langevin used <math>v=c\left(1-\tfrac{1}{20000}\right)</math>, producing Lorentz factor <math>\gamma\approx100</math> and Doppler factor <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{c+v}{c-v}}\approx200</math>.}} |- |[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]] Lectures published in 1913<ref name=lorentz1 /> Similar treatment in 1914<ref name=lorentz3 /> |{{anchor|Lorentz 1913/14-LI}}Described the round-trip experiment in terms of inertial observer A (equipped with clock K) and traveling observer B (equipped with clock K'). In the frame of A, clock K' is retarded with respect to K at reunion due to time dilation. He then described the perspective of the traveling observer B by using two-way propagation of light from K' to K and back to K', leading to three periods defined by the moment of B's turnaround: In the first period the light signals return to K' before turnaround; in the second period the signals are emitted before turnaround and return after turnaround; in the third period emission and return of the signals are both happening after turnaround. Lorentz showed that K is time dilated by a factor of <math>\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}</math> with respect to K' in the first and third period, but in the second period K is ticking ''faster'' than K' by a factor of <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{c+v}{c-v}}</math> which overcompensates the dilation in the other periods and explains, even from the perspective of B, why K' is retarded with respect to K at reunion. {{Lorentzbox|Text=In a review of the German translation of Lorentz's book, Einstein (1914) didn't directly mention Lorentz's treatment of the twin paradox, but he wrote that nobody who is seriously interested in relativity should neglect to read that book.<ref name=einstlor /> [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921) refers to Lorentz's book as one of three papers that analyze the twin paradox more closely.<ref name=pauli />}} |- |valign=top| [[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 1916-1920 |{{anchor|Einstein 1916-EP}}In a lecture from 1916,<ref name=einstein16 /> of which only an abstract was published, Einstein spoke about the "clock paradox of special relativity from the standpoint of [[w:general relativity]]." {{anchor|Einstein 1918a-EP}}In a letter from September 1918,<ref name=einadl /> Einstein showed that general relativity makes the inertial frame K and and the accelerated frame K' of the clocks in the round-trip experiment "equally justified", explaining the time difference in K' by combining the influence of velocity and gravitational potential on clocks. {{anchor|Einstein 1918-EP}}In his famous "Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity" from November 1918,<ref name=einstein18 /> aimed at clarifying misconceptions of the clock paradox, he explained that there is no paradox in special relativity because there is no symmetry between clock U1 at rest in inertial frame K and clock U2 at rest in accelerated frame K' (see {{slink||Einstein 1918-AC}}). Yet [[w:general relativity]] and the [[w:equivalence principle]] allow the treatment of this problem also from the standpoint of frame K', where clock U2 remains at rest all of the time while U1 makes the following movements: (1) It is accelerated by a homogeneous gravitational field in the negative direction, (2) it moves with constant velocity <math>-v</math>, (3) it is accelerated in the positive direction until it turns around and comes by with constant velocity <math>+v</math>, (4) it moves with velocity <math>+v</math>, (5) it is accelerated in the negative direction until it stops. Clock U1 is retarded with respect to U2 in periods 2) and 4) due to velocity time dilation, but this retardation is overcompensated by the faster rate of U1 during period 3), because U1 is at a higher gravitational potential. He argued that the computation (which he didn't provide) shows that the advance of U1 in period 3) is double its retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein concluded that by this consideration "the paradox is completely resolved". Using [[w:Mach's principle]], he pointed out that the gravitational field in K' might be induced by the masses of the universe that are accelerated in this frame. {{anchor|Einstein 1918b-EP}}In a letter to Einstein from December 1918, [[w:Max Jakob|Jakob]] doubted the result that the advance in period 3) is double the retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein responded by letter,<ref name=einstein18b /> in which he used the gravitational time dilation factor <math>1+\Phi/c^{2}</math> in K' in order to show that U1 at distance <math>l</math> is advancing by <math>\Phi/c^{2}=2vl/c^{2}</math> in period 3), which is indeed the double of approximated delay <math>vl/c^{2}</math> caused by velocity time dilation during periods 2) and 4). {{anchor|Einstein 1921-EP}}Einstein is reported to have said in an interview from 1920,<ref name=einstein20 /> that while acceleration explains the age difference between the stationary twin B and the traveling twin A in terms of special relativity (see {{slink||Einstein 1920-AC}}), the "proper" description in terms of general relativity is as follows: {| ! width=50% | German original ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | Eine tiefere Erfassung des Grundes ist indeß nur auf dem Boden der „Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" zu erlangen, die uns erkennen läßt, daß von A aus beurteilt ein Zentrifugalfeld existiert, von B aus betrachtet aber nicht; und dieses Feld hat einen Einfluß auf den relativen Ablauf und die Raschheit der Lebensvorgänge. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | A proper grasp of the reason is furnished only when we adopt the general theory of relativity, which tell us that, from the point of view of A, a centrifugal field exists, whereas it is absent from the point of view of B. This field exerts an influence on the relative rate of happening of the events of life." |} {{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Einstein's explanation was quickly adopted in the textbooks of [[w:Werner Bloch|Bloch]] (1920),<ref name=bloch2 /> [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921),<ref name=pauli /> [[w:August Kopff|Kopff]] (1921),<ref name=kopff /> [[w:Karl Bollert|Bollert]] (1921),<ref name=bollert1 /> [[w:Max Born|Born]] (1921),<ref name=born /> expressing the view that general relativity is "necessary" to provide the "complete" solution of the twin paradox. b) From a modern standpoint, however, Einstein's explanation has nothing to do with general relativity, but is rather an application of accelerated frames and "pseudo"-gravitational fields to flat Minkowski space of ''special'' relativity.<ref name=weiss group=S />}} |- |[[w:Hans Thirring|Thirring]]<ref name=thirring /> April 1921 |{{anchor|Thirring 1921-DS}}[[Image:Twin Paradox Minkowski Diagram.svg|right|200px]] He described the round-trip experiment by using two platforms K (clock A) and K' (clock B) each equipped with rows of clocks. He first demonstrated the symmetry of time dilation and the mutual relativity of simultaneity on the platforms and its effect on clock synchronization. The K clocks that B passes are all advanced because of <math>t'=\gamma\left(t-vx/c^{2}\right)</math>, and the same is true after turnaround since only the direction of velocity has to be changed in the Lorentz transformation <math>t'-t'_{0}=\gamma\left(t+vx/c^{2}\right)</math> leading to the effect of clock desynchronization, where <math>t'_{0}</math> is a constant depending on which clock one uses as standard for the new synchronization. He graphically showed using Minkowski diagrams, that this simultaneity jump due to desynchronization amounts to double the velocity time dilation during the inertial phases, explaining why A is more advanced than B at reunion. {{Lorentzbox|Text=Using clock B as synchronization standard, Thirring's constant is given by <math>t'_{0}=2l\gamma v/c^{2}=2t\gamma v^{2}/c^{2}</math> with <math>l=vt</math> as position of turnaround. A similar explanation was subsequently given by Langevin (1922).<ref name=morand />}} |} ==Curved spacetime== While the previous examples are defined in flat Minkowski spacetime and therefore can be fully discussed in terms of special relativity, [[general relativity]] is required when [[:w:spacetime curvature]] in the presence of mass and energy cannot be neglected any more.<ref name=koks group=S /> {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;" |- ! Author !! Early examples |- |[[w:Jean Becquerel|Becquerel]]<ref name=becqu1 /> 1922 |After defining gravitational time dilation <math>d\tau=\sqrt{1-\tfrac{2GM}{c^{2}r}}dt</math> in terms of the [[w:Schwarzschild metric]] around a material center, he discussed the following round-trip experiment: There are two identical clocks A and B placed next to each other, at a point very far from the material center, initially marking the same time <math>t</math>. Let us transport clock A to a point where the field is more intense, at a distance <math>r</math> from the center; this clock will measure time <math>\int d\tau</math> which is shorter than <math>\int dt</math>, thus it will run more slowly. If we bring clock A back to clock B, we will have to note that it is retarded with respect to B. |} ==Paradoxical?== {| class=wikitable style="background-color:white;" ! width=50% | German original of [[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] (1911/12):<ref name=laue1>Laue introduces the word "paradox", alludes to Berg and discusses Wiechert, in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |issue=3|date=February 1912|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|pages=118–120|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/148}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation|Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation]] on Wikisource</ref> ! English translation |- |Unter all den paradox erscheinenden Folgerungen aus der Zeittransformation der Relativitätstheorie gibt es wohl keine, gegen welche sich der natürliche Menschenverstand bei jedem, der der Sache noch ungewohnt ist, so sehr sträubt, wie gegen die, daß die Zeitangabe einer Uhr von ihrem Bewegungszustand abhängen soll. Schon in seiner grundlegenden Arbeit hat Einstein diese Paradoxie auf die Spitze getrieben in einem Gedankenexperiment, welches neuerdings von Langevin in einem auch sonst sehr lesenswerten Vortrage besonders hübsch erläutert worden ist. |Of all apparently paradox consequences that stem from the time-transformation of the theory of relativity, there is probably none against which the common sense of anyone who is still unfamiliar with the matter is more reluctant, than the one according to which the time indication of a clock shall be dependent on its state of motion. Already in his fundamental paper, Einstein has driven this paradox to the extreme by a thought experiment, recently explained in a very nice way by Langevin in a lecture that is also very readable in other respects. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Laue was probably the first to denote the round-trip experiment as paradoxical (even though he pointed out that there are no real contradictions). Subsequently, [[:w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]] (1912)<ref name=gruner /> and others including Einstein (1918)<ref name=einstein18 /> explicitly used the expression "clock paradox" (French: Paradoxe des horloges, German: Uhrenparadoxon), whereas [[w:Rudolf Seeliger|Seeliger]] (1913)<ref name=seel /> spoke of the "familiar Einstein-Langevinian paradox" (German: "bekannte Einstein-Langevinsche Paradoxon").}} |} ==Misunderstandings== {| class=wikitable style="background-color:white;" ! width=50% padding=10 | German original by [[w:Otto Berg (scientist)|Berg]] (1910):<ref name=berg /> ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Im Punkte <math>x = 0</math> des Systems S befinde sich eine Uhr, eine andere im Punkte <math>x'=0</math> von S'. Diese zweite bewege sich mit S' bis zum Punkte <math>x = a</math>, kehre dort um und bewege sich nun mit der Geschwindigkeit <math>v</math> zurück bis zum Punkte <math>x= 0</math>. Welche Zeit müssen beide Uhren in dem Moment angeben, wo sie sich wieder treffen? Wir beantworten diese Frage zunächst vom Standpunkt des Beobachters in S. Die Uhr in <math>x' = 0</math> hat sich mit der Geschwindigkeit <math>v</math> bis zum Punkte <math>x = a</math> bewegt; dazu brauchte sie die Zeit <math>\tau=\tfrac{a}{v}</math>. Zum Rückweg ist dieselbe Zeit nötig. Nach der Zeit <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math> ist die Uhr also wieder im Punkte <math>x = 0</math> angelangt. Wir stellen uns nun auf den Standpunkt des Beobachters in S'. Für diesen führt nach dem Relativitätsprinzip das System S genau dieselben Bewegungen aus wie das System S' für den Beobachter in S, nur in entgegengesetzter Richtung. Die Zeit bis zum Zusammentreffen beider Uhren ist also im System S' ebenfalls gegeben durch <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math>. Betrachtungen, die auf anschauliche Vorstellungen, wie Nachgehen von Uhren, gestützt sind, führen hier leicht zu Irrtümern, von denen auch die Fachlitteratur nicht frei ist. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |There is a clock at point <math>x=0</math> of system S, and another one at point <math>x'=0</math> of S'. The second one moves together with S' until point <math>x=a</math>, turns around and now moves back with speed <math>v</math> to point <math>x=0</math>. Which time must both clocks indicate at the moment at which they encounter again? We answer this question at first from the standpoint of the observer in S. The clock at <math>x=0</math> has been moving with speed <math>v</math> until point <math>x=a</math>, for which it required time <math>\tau=\tfrac{a}{v}</math>. The same time is required for the way back. After time <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math> the clock has thus arrived again at point <math>x=0</math>. Let's now take the standpoint of the observer in S'. In his view in accordance with the relativity principle, system S is conducting exactly the same motions as those of system S' with respect to the observer in S, only in opposite direction. Thus the time until the meeting of both clocks is given by <math>2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}</math> in system S' as well. Considerations based on illustrative notions, such as the retardation of clocks, easily lead to mistakes at this place, of which also the professional literature isn't free. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Berg was probably the first to turn the relativity principle against asymmetric aging in the round-trip experiment, claiming that both clocks must indicate the same time at reunion. See [[w:Twin paradox]] as well as sections {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator|Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator|Perspective of the traveler}} for the solution of that problem.}} |- ! width=50% | German original by [[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] (1911)<ref name=wiechert11 /> ! English translation |- |colspan=2| Even though he correctly derived differential clock aging in the round-trip experiment, he claimed that effects like time dilation are "apparent" if one admits Einstein's "unconditional" relativity principle in which there is no aether and all "strides" (i.e. non-accelerated motions) are physically equivalent, but they are "real" if one admits the existence of an aether in the framework of a "conditional" relativity principle in which all strides are physically non-equivalent or anisotropic. This led him to the following interpretation of the clock paradox: |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |[...] so muß am Schluß des Versuches B in seinem Fortschritt gegenüber A im Verhältnis <math>1:\sqrt{1-u^{2}/c^{2}}</math> zurückgeblieben sein. Und dieses Zurückbleiben ist unbedingt reell, denn die beiden Gebilde A und B können ja unter gleichen Umständen unmittelbar beieinander verglichen werden. Hier ist es ganz sicher ausgeschlossen, an einen Schein zu glauben, der durch unsere Auffassung der Zeit bewirkt wird. So ist denn also auch die Folgerung unabwendbar, daß für den Verlauf der Weltvorgänge die Schreitungen nicht gleichwertig sind, ''und damit sind wir von neuem zu einem Schluß gekommen, welcher der Unbedingtheit des Relativitätsprinzipes durchaus widerspricht.'' [...] Man kann den Versuch noch mannigfach variieren, z. B. so, daß A ebenso wie B zwei verschiedene Schreitungen, <math>+u</math> und <math>-u</math>, nacheinander inne hat. Wird dann zu A der Wert <math>u_{1}</math>, zu B der Wert <math>u_{2}</math>, zugeordnet, so muß der Vergleich von A und B am Schluß des Versuches ergeben, daß B oder A in seinem Fortschritt zurückgeblieben erscheint, je nachdem die Schreitungen <math>+u_{1}</math>, <math>-u_{1}</math>, oder <math>+u_{2}</math>, <math>-u_{2}</math> weiter auseinanderliegen. ''Vielleicht ist gerade diese Formulierung des Satzes besonders geeignet, um die Ungleichwertigkeit der verschiedenen Schreitungen klar und deutlich zu zeigen.'' | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | [...] thus B's progress must be retarded with respect to A's in the ratio <math>1:\sqrt{1-u^{2}/c^{2}}</math> at the end of the experiment. And this retardation is definitely real, since both bodies A and B indeed can be immediately compared side by side under the same conditions. Here it is certainly excluded to believe that this is an appearance due to our conception of time. Thus the consequence is unavoidable too, that the strides are not equivalent in the course of the world processes, ''and therefore we again came to a conclusion that completely contradicts the unconditionality of the relativity principle.'' [...] One can vary this experiment in many ways, for instance, so that A in the same way as B successively undergoes two different strides <math>+u</math> and <math>-u</math>. If we apply the value <math>u_{1}</math> to A and <math>u_{2}</math> to B, then the comparison of A and B at the end of the experiment must give the result, that B or A is retarded in its progress depending on whether the strides <math>+u_{2},-u_{2}</math> or <math>+u_{1},-u_{1}</math> are further apart. ''Probably it is precisely this formulation of the theorem that is particularly suitable to demonstrate the non-equivalence of the different strides clearly and explicitly.'' |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=This interpretation was directly rebutted by Laue (1911/12) who demonstrated the geometrical meaning of differential aging in Minkowski space, see sections {{slink||Laue 1911/12-PT|Laue 1911/12-VA}}, showing that there is no need to assume non-equivalance or anisotropy of motions. Laue added, that as long as there is no experimental contradiction to the relativity principle, the question after the aether can be banned from physics and left to philosophy.<ref name=laue1 />}} |- ! width=50% | German original by [[w:Norman Robert Campbell|Campbell]] (November 1911, published 1912)<ref name=camp /> ! English translation |- |colspan=2|After describing the round-trip experiment (as given by Wiechert) according to which the traveling clock B is retarded when it returns with respect to stationary clock A, he abandoned differential clock aging as follows: |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |Dieser Schluß ist nicht richtig. Die Beziehung zwischen <math>t</math>, der Ablesung an der Uhr auf A seitens des Beobachters auf A und <math>t'</math>, der Ablesung an der Uhr auf B seitens des Beobachters auf A, ist (unter der Annahme, daß zu Beginn des Versuchs <math>t=t'</math> ist) :<math>t'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\left(t-vz/c^{2}\right)</math>. Der Unterschied zwischen <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> ist eine Funktion von <math>z</math> und <math>v</math> allein. Wenn man diesen Größen ihre früheren Werte wiedergibt, indem man die beiden Uhren wieder zur Koinzidenz bringt, während sie relativ zueinander ruhen, so geht der Unterschied zwischen <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> wieder auf null zurück, gleichviel, welche Werte <math>z</math> und <math>v</math> während der Zwischenzeit gehabt haben mögen. Wenn an irgendeinem Punkte der Bahn die Geschwindigkeit von B relativ zu A eine endliche plötzliche Änderung erfährt, so erfährt auch der Wert von <math>v</math> eine endliche plötzliche Änderung. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |This conclusion is not correct. The relationship between <math>t</math> as the reading on the clock on A by the observer on A, and <math>t'</math> as the reading on the clock on B by the observer on A, is given by (assuming that <math>t=t'</math> at the beginning of the experiment) :<math>t'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\left(t-vz/c^{2}\right)</math>. The difference between <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> is a function of <math>z</math> and <math>v</math> alone. If these quantities are given their previous values by bringing the two clocks back to coincidence during which they are at rest relative to one another, the difference between <math>t'</math> and <math>t</math> goes back to zero, no matter what values <math>z</math> and <math>v</math> may have had in the meantime. If at any point on the path the speed of B experiences a finite sudden change relative to A, then the value of <math>t'</math> also undergoes a finite sudden change. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=So Campbell claims that any time difference during the outbound path is wiped out during the inbound path. His mistake is obvious: Campbell is confusing coordinate differences stemming from the Lorentz transformation of ''events'' (which indeed depend on position and direction) with differences in ''clock aging'' derived from the proper time integral (which is ''accumulative'' and independent of position and direction.)}} |- ! width=50% | French original by [[w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]] (March 1912):<ref name=gruner /> ! English translation |- | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" |[...] deux personnes du même âge, se séparant dans des systèmes de « marche » très différents et retournant après un laps de temps assez long, constateront une différence d'âge très sensible. [...] le principe de relativité exige toujours la ''réciprocité parfaite'' des phénomènes entre deux systèmes qui possèdent un mouvement relatif. Si, dans l'exemple cité, les deux personnes du même âge se séparent avec une vitesse relative pour se retrouver plus tard, la constatation d'une différence d'âge sera parfaitement mutuelle : A dira positivement que B est resté en arrière dans son développement, et B affirmera avec le même droit que c'est A qui ne s'est pas développé assez vite. Ainsi le principe absolu de la relativité montre ses conséquences les plus extrèmes et il est clair que l'introduction de l’éther n'est plus en état de résoudre cette contradiction irréductible et inconcevable. | style="padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;" | [...] two people of same age, separating into very different systems of motion and returning after a quite long period of time, will notice a very significant age difference. [...] the principle of relativity always requires the ''perfect reciprocity'' of the phenomenons between two systems that possess relative motion. When, in the cited example, the two persons of same age are separated by some relative velocity only to meet again later, the finding of an age difference will be perfectly mutual: A will positively say that B stayed behind in its development, and B will assert with same right that it was A who has not developed fast enough. By that, the absolute relativity principle shows its most extreme consequences and it is clear, that the introduction of the aether is no longer able to resolve this irreducible and inconceivable contradiction. |- |colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Gruner was probably the first to claim that combining the round-trip experiment with the symmetry of time dilation leads to the contradictory situation, that both must attribute younger age to one another at reunion. At the end of his paper, we also find the expression "clock paradox" (French: paradoxe des horloges). See [[w:Twin paradox]] as well as sections {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator|Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator|Perspective of the traveler}} for the solution of that problem.}} |} ==Einstein's contributions== 1905:<ref name=einstein05 /> Introduction of the "peculiar" (German: eigentümlich) round-trip experiment with clocks, describing a polygonal path, an continuously curved path, and an experiment comparing a clock at the pole with one at the equator. January 1911 (published November):<ref name=einstein11a /> In a lecture from January, Einstein extended the "funny" (German: drollig) round-trip experiment to living organisms. According to [[w:Rudolf Lämmel]] in April 1911<ref name=lammel /> and [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Fritz Müller]] in October 1911,<ref name=muller /> Einstein spoke of human beings as well. January 1911 (published January 1912):<ref name=einstein3 /> During a discussion with Einstein directly after the previous lecture, [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Fritz Müller]] claimed that any time difference during the round-trip should vanish at reunion, in analogy to the fact that the Lorentz contraction of a moving rod vanishes when it is at rest again. Einstein showed that the analogy is incorrect: While the clock rates are indeed the same again when they are mutually at rest, the clocks do not indicate the same time at reunion because "clocks are carriers of the time differential"; he went on to show that any possible influence of acceleration during the turnaround can be made negligible by elongating the constant velocity periods. 1912:<ref name=einst12manu /> In an unpublished manuscript on special relativity, Einstein showed that if system <math>\Sigma'</math> makes a round-trip along a polygon, then its inner processes will be retarded with respect to resting system <math>\Sigma </math> at reunion. He pointed out that any influence of acceleration can be neglected if one makes the time of acceleration negligible with respect to the total time of motion along the polygon. April 1914:<ref name=einstpetz /> [[w:Joseph Petzoldt]] criticized asymmetric clock aging in the round-trip experiment as a "fallback into absolutist way of thinking", claiming that special relativity requires that any difference between the clocks vanishes when their relative velocity is zero again, even though he added that any treatment of the clock paradox in special relativity is unrealistic anyway, since the theory only concerns uniform motions and therefore cannot handle velocity changes, so one has to modify the theory. Einstein responded by letter in which he praised Petzoldt's philosophical take on relativity, yet he rejected Petzoldt's conclusions concerning the clock paradox by showing that any finite acceleration at turnaround during the round-trip can only influence the clock in a finite way and therefore can be neglected by minimizing the time of acceleration with respect to the time of uniform translation, so it "must be concluded" that the clock traveling on a polygonal path is retarded at reunion. May 1914:<ref name=rowe group=S /> During a conversation with [[w:Ernst Gehrcke]] who claimed that the clock paradox contradicts the relativity principle, Einstein replied that clock B is retarded because it was accelerating in contrast to clock A; while those accelerations are irrelevant for the amount of the time difference, their presence nevertheless cause B to fall behind ("accelerated motions are absolute in the theory of relativity"). 1916:<ref name=einstein16 /> In a lecture of which only an abstract was published, Einstein spoke about the "clock paradox of special relativity from the standpoint of general relativity." September 1918:<ref name=einadl /> In a letter to Einstein, [[w:Friedrich Adler (politician)|Friedrich Adler]] (while in prison for the [[w:Assassination of Karl von Stürgkh]]) claimed that the clock paradox which he described on a circular round-trip contradicts the special relativity principle, and also referred to the similar opinions of [[w:#a|Berg and Petzoldt]]. Einstein responded by letter and explained that there is no contradiction as one of them accelerates; he then showed that general relativity makes both inertial frame K and accelerated frame K' equally justified, explaining the time difference in K' by combining the influence of velocity and gravitational potential, concluding that "Berg and Petzoldt were wrong". November 1918:<ref name=einstein18 /> In a fictitious dialogue between a relativity critic and a relativity apologist written by Einstein, the "critic" said that special relativity must predict differential clock aging in round-trip experiments, which was confirmed by the "relativist" who regretfully noted that even some pro-relativity authors tried to "circumvent this unavoidable result". Yet the critic claimed that this leads to a contradiction: From the viewpoint of K, clock U1 is at rest while the clock U2 was in motion and therefore returns being retarded with respect to U1, but from the viewpoint of K', clock U2 is at rest while clock U1 was in motion and therefore returns being retarded with respect to U2, which was rebutted by the relativist by pointing out the acceleration of U2. Then the critic claimed that this problem "rises again from the dead" in general relativity which allows to symmetrically treat both K and K', which was rebutted by the relativist using the equivalence principle: In K', the rate increase of U1 during turnaround period 3) is "the double" of its velocity time dilation in the inertial periods 2) and 4). December 1918:<ref name=einstein18b /> In a letter to Einstein, [[w:Max Jakob]] doubted the result from Einstein's dialogue, according to which the advance of U1 in period 3) is the double of its retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein responded by letter, in which he used the gravitational time dilation factor <math>1+\Phi/c^{2}</math> in K' in order to show that U1 at distance <math>l</math> is advancing by <math>\Phi/c^{2}=2vl/c^{2}</math> in period 3), which is indeed the double of approximated delay <math>vl/c^{2}</math> caused by velocity time dilation during periods 2) and 4). 1920:<ref name=einstein20 /> In conversations with [[w:Alexander Moszkowski]] between 1919 and 1920, Einstein argued that differential aging of the twins is rather a paradox of feeling, not a paradox of thought, because the latter would only arise if there were no reason for the asymmetric aging. The reason in special relativity lies in the fact that one of them suffered accelerations, while a deeper understanding of that question is obtained by using general relativity. Einstein argued that our "common sense" is located in the realm of feeling and analogy drawn from our ordinary experience; since there is no analogy to the example of the twins in our experience, it might appear paradoxical to the common sense, while it appears logical and necessary in light of intensified abstraction of the trained scientific mind. August 1920:<ref name=rowe group=S /> At an anti-relativity event organized by the right-wing agitator [[w:Paul Weyland]] during which [[w:antisemitic]] leaflets were distributed and [[w:swastika]]s offered at the entrance, a lecture was given by Gehrcke re-iterating his criticism of the twin paradox, claiming that the stationary first organism is old or even dead at reunion while the second organism was in motion and therefore stayed young, but from the standpoint of the second organism he himself is old or even dead while the first organism was in motion and stayed young, thus relativity is either contradictory or it leads to different realities and physical [[w:solipsism]]. Einstein who was present at that event, directly responded in a newspaper article;<ref name=einst20 /> after suspecting antisemitic motives of his critics, he specifically addressed Gehrcke's objections regarding the "well known example of the clocks (or twins)", remarking that the charge of solipsism will be "greeted by the experts as a joke", and characterized the claim that relativity requires mutual retardation of two co-located clocks as a "deliberate attempt to misinform the lay public". 1922:<ref name=morand /><ref name=nord /> [[w:Paul Painlevé]], Einstein and Langevin discussed the clock paradox at a meeting in Paris. Painlevé imagined a clock on a train that performs a round-trip with constant speed and returns being retarded with respect to the station clock, yet he claimed that the relativity principle also allows to say that the station clock performed the round-trip and returned being retarded with respect to the train clock, in contradiction to the previous result. Einstein replied that the relativity principle cannot be applied since the train is not in a Galilean system (i.e. inertial frame) any longer during the period of velocity change at turnaround, i.e. the ensemble of two systems having velocities in opposite direction is not an inertial frame; there is no reciprocity between a frame that changes direction and one that doesn't. Langevin consequently gave a detailed analysis in terms of the Lorentz transformation. 1954:<ref name=einstein54 /> In a letter, Einstein explained the "well known clock paradoxon" using two clocks <math>B_{1}</math> and <math>B_{2}</math>; clock <math>B_{2}</math> has to reverse its speed in order to come back, thus it was initially at rest in inertial frame <math>S_{2}</math> and then at rest in <math>S_{2}^{+}</math>, whereas <math>B_{1}</math> constantly remains at rest in <math>S_{1}</math>, which explains the asymmetry between them. ==Historical references== <references> <ref name=einstein05>See p. 904f in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1905 |title=Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper|journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=322 |issue=10 |pages=891–921 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053221004|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 2, Document 23}}. See also: [https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ English translation at fourmilab].</ref> <ref name=einstein11a>See p. 10. in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |title=Die Relativitäts-Theorie|journal=Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift |volume=56 |issue=1-2|pages=1–14 |date=27 November 1911|orig-date=Lecture 16 January 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n11/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 3, Document 17}}.<br /> The publication date 27 November 1911 can be seen on the [https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n5/mode/2up Title page and TOC of issue 1-2].</ref> <ref name=einstein3>Discussion between Einstien, Müller, Lämmel and others after the Zürich lecture: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A.; Müller, F., Lämmel, R.|title=Diskussion zu "Die Relativitäts-Theorie"|journal=Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift |volume=56 |pages=II-IX |date=January 1912|orig-date=Lecture on 16 January 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n587/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 3, Document 18, and in the corresponding English translation volume}}<br /> While the discussion already happened on January 1911, the publication followed one year later in January 1912 in the session proceedings (Sitzungsberichte) of the third issue, see [https://www.ngzh.ch/publikationen/vjs/56/3 Full issue Nr. 3] with [http://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1911_56/56_1-2/56_3.pdf Title page and TOC] and the [http://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1911_56/56_3/56_30.pdf Sitzungsberichte including Einstein's discussion on pp. II-IX]. </ref> <ref name=einst12manu>See p. 46 in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1912 |chapter=Document 1: Einstein's manuscript on the special theory of relativity|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=4|pages=3-108|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}</ref> <ref name=einstlor>{{Citation|author=Einstein, A.|date=1914|title=Review of "Lorentz, H. A. – Das Relativitätsprinzip" |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|volume=2|pages=1018|url=https://archive.org/details/CAT31421305002/page/1018/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 6, Document 11}}</ref> <ref name=einstpetz>{{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1914 |chapter=Document 5: Letter from Einstein to Petzoldt|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=8a|pages=16-17|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}</ref> <ref name=einstein16>See p. 423f in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1916 |title=Announcement of Einstein's lecture "Über einige anschauliche Überlegungen aus dem Gebiete der Relativitätstheorie"|journal=Berliner Sitzungsberichte|pages=423|volume=1916 (part 1)|url=https://archive.org/details/sitzungsberichte1916deutsch/page/423/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=einadl>Letter exchange between Einstein and Adler in which the critique on the clock paradox by Berg (1910) and Petzoldt (1914) was mentioned, together with the general relativity solution in terms of the gravitational potential, in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1918 |chapter=Adler's letter in Document 620 and Einstein's reply in Document 628|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=8a|pages=16-17|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}</ref> <ref name=einstein18>Einstein discussed in terms of inertial frames (special relativity) on pp. 697f; accelerated frames (general relativity) on pp. 698f.; distant masses (Mach's principle) on pp. 700f. in: {{citation |author=Einstein, A.|title=Dialog über Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie|date=November 1918|volume=6|issue=48|journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|pages=697-702|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1918-11-29_6_48|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 7, Document 13}}; See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity|Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity]] on Wikisource.</ref> <ref name=einstein18b>Letter exchange between Max Jakob and Einstein from December 1918, in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1918 |chapter=Jakob's letter in Document 661c and Einstein's reply in Document 663a|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=10|pages=189-190}}</ref> <ref name=einstein20>Interview of Einstein by Moszkowski, see p. 204f. in: {{citation |author=Moszkowski, A.|title=Einstein. Einblicke in seine Gedankenwelt|orig-date=Copyright date 1920 |date=1921|place=Hamburg|url=https://www.archive.org/details/einsteineinblick00moszuoft}}; See also English translation by H. L. Brose (1921): [https://archive.org/details/einsteinsearch00moszrich Einstein, the searcher], p. 206</ref> <ref name=einst20>{{Citation|author=Einstein, A.|date=27 August 1920|journal=Berliner Tageblatt|title=Meine Antwort - Ueber die anti-relativitätstheoretische G. m. b. H.|issue=402|pages=1-2|url=https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/YH65KFT53MOG4SMXDXK4IVUPTR3QRY7Q?issuepage=1|quote=Reprinted in "The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein", Vol. 7, Document 45}}</ref> <ref name=einstein54>Letter from Einstein to N. V. Pope from March 1954; [[w:Albert Einstein Archives]], Object number 27-88 ([https://ein-web.adlibhosting.com/aea/Details/archive/110021626 Online dataset]); Scanned version as [https://groups.google.com/group/npachat/attach/d3121322d37764f2/Einstein%20letter.doc?part=0.1 Word document on Usenet] published by [https://groups.google.com/g/npachat/c/Haoib97d6OA/m/8mR30yITEtMJ Pope himself])</ref> <ref name=morand>Discussion between Painlevé, Einstein, and Langevin on p. 316ff in: {{citation |author=Morand, M.|title=Einstein au collège de france|date=April 1922|journal=La Nature|volume=50|issue=2511|pages=315-320|url=http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.102/319/100/620/5/613}}</ref> <ref name=lammel>{{Citation|author=Lämmel, R.|date=28 April 1911|title=Die Relativitäts-Lehre|journal=Neue Zürcher Zeitung|volume=117|pages=1|url=https://www.e-newspaperarchives.ch/?a=d&d=NZZ19110428-01.2.4.1}}; English translation of the part concering the twin pardox at [[:v:History of Topics in Special Relativity/Twin paradox#Lämmel 1911-Hum|Wikiversity:Early history of the twin paradox - Lämmel]]</ref> <ref name=lammel2>See p. 84ff in: {{Citation|author=Lämmel, R.|date=1921|orig-date=Preface December 1920|title=Die Grundlagen der Relativitätstheorie|place=Berlin|publisher=Springer|url=https://archive.org/details/diegrundlagende00lmgoog}}</ref> <ref name=langevin1>He derived differential aging from the proper time integral; pointed out that this demonstrates the "absolute nature of acceleration" with respect to an aether, see: {{citation |author=Langevin, P.|title=[[:s:fr:L’Évolution de l’espace et du temps|L’Évolution de l’espace et du temps]]|journal=Scientia |volume=X |pages=31–54 |date=July 1911|orig-date=Lecture 10 April 1911}}; English translation [[:s:en:Translation:The Evolution of Space and Time|The Evolution of Space and Time]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=langevin2>See p. 329 in: {{citation |author=Langevin, P. |title=Le temps, l'espace et la causalité dans la physique moderne |journal=Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie |volume=12 |orig-date=Lecture October 1911|date=1912|pages=1-28|url=http://ahp.li/1f7fc22d283fdf0deeca.pdf}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert11>See p. 745f. general description and proper time; 757f. space travel; in: {{Citation |author=Wiechert, E. |date=September 1911|orig-date=Lectures March-May 1911, submitted 26 July|title=[[:s:de:Relativitätsprinzip und Äther|Relativitätsprinzip und Äther]]|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=12 |issue=17-18 |pages=[https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/741 689-707] published September 1; [https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/789 737–758] published September 15}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert15>See p. 46 (Einstein, Langevin, Wiechert) and pp. 51f (Laue versus Wiechert) in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|contribution=Die Mechanik im Rahmen der allgemeinen Physik| title=Die Kultur der Gegenwart: Physik|volume=3.3.1|date=1915 |orig-date=Submitted July 1914|pages=1–78|contribution-url=https://www.archive.org/details/physikunterredak00warbuoft}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert20>See p. 46f in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|title=Der Äther im Weltbild der Physik|orig-date=Presented December 1920|date=1921|journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse|pages=29-70|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN00250586X}}</ref> <ref name=wiechert21>See p. 25ff in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|title=[[:s:de:Prinzipielles über Äther und Relativität|Prinzipielles über Äther und Relativität]]|date=1922|orig-date=Lecture September 1921|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=23|pages=25-28}}</ref> <ref name=muller>See p. 9 in: {{Citation|author=Müller, F.|date=October 1911|journal=Berliner Tageblatt|title=[[:s:de:Das Zeitproblem (1911)|Das Zeitproblem]]|pages=[https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/2QKOIOLGNVQILTCEZQOGQPLTRVLPM5PZ?query=zeit&issuepage=9 Part 1 published 16 October 1911] and [https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/IO44I6QBC4SVV5YUKUDSGXYIPQUXXBN5?query=zeit&issuepage=11 Part 2 published 23 October 1911]}}</ref> <ref name=gruner>See p. 253f in: {{Citation |author=Gruner, P. |title=[[:s:fr:Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l’éther|Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l’éther]] |journal=Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles |volume=33|issue=4 |pages=252-254 |date=March 1912}}</ref> <ref name=laue3>See p. 113f in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip |journal=Jahrbücher der Philosophie |volume=1 |date=1913 |pages=99–128}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation of [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue, Philosophy)|The Principle of Relativity]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=weyl>See p. 147f. in: {{Citation |author=Weyl, H. |date=March 1918|title=Raum-Zeit-Materie (first edition)|publisher=Berlin: Springer|url=https://archive.org/details/RaumZeitMaterieVolIMeinerFrauGewidmet}}; English translation of the 4th edition by H. Brose (1921): [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43006 Space—Time—Matter], pp. 278f.</ref> <ref name=gbaum>See footnote on p. 507 in: {{Citation|author=Grünbaum, F. |title=Über einige ideelle Versuche zum Relativitätsprinzip|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=12|pages=500–509|date=1911|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/540}}</ref> <ref name=laue1>Laue introduces the word "paradox", alludes to Berg and discusses Wiechert, in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |issue=3|date=February 1912|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|pages=118–120|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/148}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation|Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=laue2>See p. 42f. for general description; p. 58f. in terms of proper time; in: {{Citation |author=Laue, M. v. |orig-date=Preface December 1912|date=1913 |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip (Second Edition) |publisher=Vieweg |place=Braunschweig|url=https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE4597082}}; See also English translation [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue 1913)|The Principle of Relativity, Second edition, Part III]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=laue3>See p. 113f in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip |journal=Jahrbücher der Philosophie |volume=1 |date=1913 |pages=99–128}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation of [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue, Philosophy)|The Principle of Relativity]] on Wikisource</ref> <ref name=berg>See p. 369f in: {{Citation |author=Berg, O. |date=1910 |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip der Elektrodynamik |journal=Abhandlungen der Fries'schen Schule |volume=3 |issue=2|pages=333-382 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.hnuynk?urlappend=%3Bseq=351}}</ref> <ref name=camp>See p. 123f in: {{Citation |author=Campbell, N. |title=Relativitätsprinzip und Äther: Eine Entgegnung an Herrn Wiechert |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |pages=120-128 |issue=3|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|date=February 1912|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/150}}. The is based on an English manuscript translated by Max Iklé, and Campbell's first name was Germanised as "Normann".</ref> <ref name=seel>{{Citation|author=Seeliger, R.|title=Review of "P. Gruner – Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l'éther"|journal=Die Fortschritte der Physik|volume=68|issue=2|pages=336|date=1913|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSJGAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA336}}</ref> <ref name=study>See footnote on p. 111 in: {{citation |author=Study, E. |title=Vorlesungen über ausgewählte Gegenstände der Geometrie |date=June 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/vorlesungenber00studuoft|publisher=B.G. Teubner|place=Leipzig}} </ref> <ref name=robb1>See pp. 356ff. in: {{Citation|author=Robb, A.|date=1914|title=A theory of time and space|place=Cambridge|publisher=University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/theoryoftimespac00robbrich}} </ref> <ref name=robb2>See §12 in: {{citation |author=Robb, A. A.|title=The Straight Path|date=1920 |journal=Nature|pages=599|volume=104|issue=2623|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1920-02-05_104_2623/page/598/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=edding2>See p. 22 in: {{Citation |author=Eddington, A. S. |date=1922 |title=The theory of relativity, and its influence on scientific thought |publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005748573}}</ref> <ref name=rogers>{{citation |author=Rogers, R. A. P.|title=The Time-Triangle and Time-Triad in Special Relativity|date=November 1922|journal=Nature|volume=110|issue=2769|pages=698–699|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1922-11-25_110_2769/page/698/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=lorentz1>See pp. 37f, 55ff in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|date=1913|title=Het relativiteitsbeginsel : drie voordrachten gehouden in Teyler's stichting|publisher=De Erven Loosjes |place=Haarlem|url=https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=MMKB24:063387000:00005}}; German translation on pp. 31f, 47f in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|date=1914| title=Das Relativitätsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem|publisher=B.G. Teubner |place=Leipzig and Berlin|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_89PPAAAAMAAJ}}; See also the transcription [[:s:de:Das Relativitätsprinzip (Lorentz)|Das Relativitätsprinzip]] on German Wikisource and the English translation [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Lorentz)|The Principle of Relativity]] on English Wikisource</ref> <ref name=lorentz3>See §12 in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|title=Considérations élémentaires sur le principe de relativité|date=1914 |journal=Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées|pages=179-186|url=https://archive.org/details/revuegnraled25pari/page/178/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=bloch>See pp. 67 ff. in: {{Citation | author=Bloch, W.| date=September 1918|title=Einführung in die Relativitätstheorie| publisher=B. G. Teubner |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101040276907}}</ref> <ref name=bloch2>See pp. 69ff. (special relativity) and 102ff. (general relativity) in: {{Citation | author=Bloch, W.| date=1920 |title=Einführung in die Relativitätstheorie (second edition)| publisher=B. G. Teubner |url=https://www.archive.org/details/einfhrungindier00blocgoog}}</ref> <ref name=bollert1>See p. 6 (special relativity), pp. 24-26 (EP) in: {{citation |author=Bollert, K.|title=Einstein’s Relativitätstheorie und ihre Stellung im System der Gesamterfahrung |date=April 1921|publisher=Steinkopff|url=https://archive.org/details/dbc.wroc.pl.001504}}</ref> <ref name=born>See pp. 190f. (special relativity), 250f (EP) in: {{Citation | author=Born, M.| date=1921 |title=Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen (Second edition)| publisher=Springer | place=Berlin|url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017387310}}; The [https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE5426498 first edition (1920)] of Born's book didn't include the twin paradox. English translation of the third edition by H. Brose (1924): [https://archive.org/details/einsteinstheoryo00born Einstein's theory of relativity]</ref> <ref name=pauli>See p. 558f (general description); p. 624f (proper time); p. 713f (accelerated frames); in: {{Citation |author=Pauli, W. |date=1921 |journal=Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften|title=Die Relativitätstheorie|pages=539–776|volume=5|issue=2 |url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN360709672}}; English translation by G. Field (1958): [https://books.google.com/books?id=rc3DAgAAQBAJ Theory of Relativity]</ref> <ref name=thirring>See p. 209ff in: {{citation |author=Thirring, H.|title=Über das Uhrenparadoxon in der Relativitätstheorie|date=April 1921|journal=Naturwissenschaften|volume=9|issue=18|pages=209-212|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1921-04-01_9_13/mode/2up}}</ref> <ref name=sommerfeld>See p. 71 in: {{citation |author=Sommerfeld, A. |date=May 1913|chapter=Remarks on Minkowski's "Space and Time"|title=Das Relativitätsprinzip|editor=Otto Blumenthal|pages=69-73|url=https://www.archive.org/details/dasrelativittsp00minkgoog}}</ref> <ref name=kopff>See pp. 45ff (special relativity and proper time); pp. 117ff (EP); pp. 189ff (Mach's principle), in: {{citation |author=Kopff, A.|title=Grundzüge der Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie |date=February 1921|publisher=S. Hirzel|place=Leipzig|url=https://www.archive.org/details/grundzgedereins00kopfgoog}}; English translation by H. Levy (1923): [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017188817 The mathematical theory of relativity].</ref> <ref name=becqu1>See p. 48ff (proper time), p. 240f (general relativity) in: {{citation |author=Becquerel, J.|title=[[:s:fr:Le Principe de relativité et la théorie de la gravitation|Le Principe de relativité et la théorie de la gravitation]] |date=1922 |publisher=Gauthier-Villars|place=Paris}}; See also p. 57ff (proper time), p. 177f (general relativity) in: {{citation |author=Becquerel, J.|title=[[:s:fr:Exposé élémentaire de la théorie d’Einstein et de sa généralisation|Exposé élémentaire de la théorie d’Einstein et de sa généralisation]]|date=1922 |publisher=Payot|place=Paris}}</ref> <ref name=nord>Discussion between Painlevé, Einstein, and Langevin on pp. 146ff in: {{citation |author=Nordmann, C.|title=[[s:fr:Einstein expose et discute sa théorie|Einstein expose et discute sa théorie]]|date=May 1922|journal=Revue des deux mondes|volume=IX|pages=129-166}}</ref> </references> ==Secondary sources== <references group=S> <ref name=miller>{{Citation |author=Miller, A. I. |date=1981 |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |place=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}; See section 7.4.13 (Langevin, Wiechert, Laue, Einstein), footnotes 29-34 of chapter 7 (Petzoldt, Sommerfeld, Bergson, Einstein)</ref> <ref name=lange>{{Citation|author=Lange, L.|date=1927|title=The clock paradox of the theory of relativity|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=34|issue=1|pages=22-30|jstor=2299914}}</ref> <ref name=pes>{{Citation |author=Pesic, P. |date=2003 |title=Einstein and the twin paradox |journal=European Journal of Physics |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=585–590 |doi=10.1088/0143-0807/24/6/004}}</ref> <ref name=during>{{Citation |author=During, É. |date=2014 |title=Langevin ou le paradoxe introuvable |journal=Revue de métaphysique et de morale |volume=84 |pages=513-527 |doi=10.3917/rmm.144.0513|doi-access=free}}; See pp. 515f (Langevin), 520f. (Einstein, Laue, Weyl, Painlevé).</ref> <ref name=debs>{{Citation |author=Debs, T. A., & Redhead, M. L. |title=The twin paradox and the conventionality of simultaneity |date=1996 |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=64|issue=1| pages=384-392 |doi=10.1119/1.18252}}</ref> <ref name=alizzi>{{Citation |author=Alizzi, A., Sen, A., & Silagadze, Z. K.|title=Do moving clocks slow down? |year=2022 |journal=European Journal of Physics |volume=43|issue=6|pages=065601 |doi=10.1088/1361-6404/ac93ca|arxiv=2209.12654}}; Appendix B with reference to Lange and Halsbury</ref> <ref name=beng>{{Citation |author=Benguigui, L. G. |date=2020 |title=A Tale Of Two Twins: The Langevin Experiment Of A Traveler To A Star |publisher=World Scientific|isbn=9789811219115}}; See early solutions (Einstein, Langevin, Lorentz, Born/Kopff) and the Bergson controversy. A shorter version appeared in {{arxiv|1212.4414}}.</ref> <ref name=rowe>{{Citation|author=Rowe, D. E.|date=2006|title=Einstein's allies and enemies: Debating relativity in Germany 1916–1920|journal=Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy|pages=231-280|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5195-1_8}}; Covering the criticism of Gehrcke starting with 1912; discussion between Einstein and Gehrcke in 1914; Einstein's dialogue (1918) as response to antirelativists; the Weyland event in 1920 and Einstein's response.</ref> <ref name=weiss>Weiss, W. (Physics FAQ): [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/TwinParadox/twin_gr.html The Twin Paradox: The Equivalence Principle Analysis]</ref> <ref name=cuvaj>{{Citation |author=Cuvaj, C. |date=1971 |title=Paul Langevin and the theory of relativity|journal=Japanese studies in the history of science|volume=10| pages=113-142|url=http://www.isc.meiji.ac.jp/~sano/hssj/pdf/Cuvaj_C-1972-Langevin_Relativity-JSHS-No_10-pp113-142.pdf}}</ref> <ref name=koks>Koks, D. (2018): [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/sr-gr.html Physics FAQ: Where is the Boundary between Special and General Relativity?]</ref> </references> [[Category:History of special relativity]] [[Category:Paradoxes]] rh4iq5eg1q5bkssfpj132cymn5ml17e 0 305659 2822113 2821777 2026-08-14T17:33:33Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Updating the Galactic Calendar */ 2822113 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 63,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 353,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun will travel in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky will completely change over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.006 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 E7BD 3424}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5057}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized baseline based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect our best estimates as observational astrophysics improves our measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 6e0zqa12xrdnxloqh50aamjr97yx474 2822120 2822113 2026-08-14T18:28:44Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Naked Eye Stars */ 2822120 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.006 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 E7BD 3424}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5057}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized baseline based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect our best estimates as observational astrophysics improves our measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 65yai63cei4vu5e5zlij25vrx1ozqip 2822124 2822120 2026-08-14T20:29:02Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sum */ 2822124 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732 }}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized baseline based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect our best estimates as observational astrophysics improves our measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 91tr47q7an5bac9pl2zk0q30jqgdwo3 2822125 2822124 2026-08-14T20:29:25Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sum */ 2822125 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized baseline based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect our best estimates as observational astrophysics improves our measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] lwij1gdiy2ebsil6pwywbcypr60ufyo 2822126 2822125 2026-08-14T20:32:59Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Updating the Galactic Calendar */ 2822126 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094A}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect our best estimates as observational astrophysics improves our measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] co3jdzp3i6du7ac477gui101atfb75d 2822127 2822126 2026-08-14T20:34:34Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Updating the Galactic Calendar */ 2822127 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] mstacvtvn24oc1thv4k0szushs19olh 2822128 2822127 2026-08-14T20:48:24Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Metonic Cycle */ 2822128 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps were designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the milky way. As anchored Large astronomical objects, such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn, can be thought of as bullies both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful", but also in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. The bullies, in Bully timestamps, are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] dfcwc9pfktntwgz9pfv0v7peww0y2wn 2822129 2822128 2026-08-14T21:00:32Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2822129 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In Bully timestamps, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 9274npa7pht23b9ajpjk5228iyuv0no 2822130 2822129 2026-08-14T21:01:42Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2822130 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). This fixed value is not identical to a true, observed galactic year, and should be interpreted as an idealization. The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described above: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In Bully timestamps, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 6uzury217aio6186cd5stl6cc0f3enx 2822131 2822130 2026-08-14T21:11:57Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Idealized Galactic Orbit */ 2822131 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described above: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In Bully timestamps, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] hxz1i2akx6rpnj7lk4v26htv4rw77r4 2822133 2822131 2026-08-14T21:17:59Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2822133 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described above: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == The Metonic Cycle == The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] pvpqkdsz98s3al7wc3tpj5fwfisvuot 2822134 2822133 2026-08-14T21:24:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Metonic Cycle */ 2822134 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sum ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described above: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are suitable for measuring time over short durations on Earth. In fact, these celestial movements form the basis for all legacy time units, including the day, week, month, and year. However, these motions are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift further away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. Therefore, a more permanent astronomical anchor—like the Bully timestamp system—is required for long-term tracking. The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] kde9ho19ntkdf9a8ezbzjbdrmvflel1 2822135 2822134 2026-08-14T22:09:41Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sum */ 2822135 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, bully had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described above: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are suitable for measuring time over short durations on Earth. In fact, these celestial movements form the basis for all legacy time units, including the day, week, month, and year. However, these motions are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift further away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. Therefore, a more permanent astronomical anchor—like the Bully timestamp system—is required for long-term tracking. The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] pcdu1sro5clq5dz4iyisnsn4f728iq2 2822136 2822135 2026-08-14T22:12:08Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2822136 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described above: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are suitable for measuring time over short durations on Earth. In fact, these celestial movements form the basis for all legacy time units, including the day, week, month, and year. However, these motions are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift further away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. Therefore, a more permanent astronomical anchor—like the Bully timestamp system—is required for long-term tracking. The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 8nslopaajr1lj3f8ppky6z9yxzeb97w 2822137 2822136 2026-08-14T22:12:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2822137 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> === One Solar Radius === [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately '''3055 seconds''' for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === As described above, the '''first''' and '''fifth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds and roughly 6.344 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy at a velocity of approximately '''one Solar Radius (''R''_☉)''' per Bully timestamp. Before moving on to describe the physical significance of the '''ninth''' digit in terms of "naked-eye stars," it is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. '''Figure 3''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3 has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs (the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps). As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] ==== The Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars ==== The term naked-eye stars refers to any celestial object that can be seen in the night sky using only human vision, completely unaided by binoculars or telescopes. However, what qualifies as a "naked-eye star" is highly subjective, depending heavily on environmental light pollution and a person's biological visual acuity. In remote regions like deserts or high mountains, the sky is perfectly dark. A person may see between 2,500 and 3,500 stars at a given time. The Milky Way can actually cast shadows on the ground in these conditions. In major metropolitan areas like New York or Tokyo, extreme light pollution blanks out the sky. Only the Moon, planets, and perhaps a dozen or two of the absolute brightest stars remain visible to the naked eye. To see faint stars, human eyes must adapt to the dark, widening the pupils to draw in light. A young person's pupil may expand to 7 mm, whereas an older adult's pupil might only expand to 5 mm, naturally making faint stars invisible to the older observer. Also, minor uncorrected astigmatisms, nearsightedness, or mild cataracts smudge pinpoint starlight, causing faint stars to blend directly into the background glow of the night sky. ==== The Hipparchus Magnitude System ==== In 129 B.C., the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus created the world's first stellar catalog. He ranked the stars purely by how they appeared to his naked eye. In 1856, astronomer Norman Pogson formalized this ancient system mathematically. He discovered that the human eye perceives brightness logarithmically, and that Hipparchus’s 1st-magnitude stars were exactly 100 times brighter than his 6th-magnitude stars. *'''1st Magnitude:''' The very brightest, "first-rate" stars to light up at twilight. *'''2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Magnitude:''' Progressively dimmer stars. *'''6th Magnitude:''' The absolute faintest, "sixth-rate" stars Hipparchus could barely see under pristine, ancient night skies. The stars in Figure 3 are ranked using the modern version of Hipparchus's magnitude system. A total of 9,427 stars are included in the stacked histogram, but more than two-thirds of these are 6th-magnitude stars that are only visible in ideal circumstances. It is notable that stars of first through third magnitude tend to be nearer than 100 parsecs, whereas stars of fifth and sixth magnitude tend to be beyond the 100 parsecs mark. Over a time duration of 16⁸ Bully timestamps, the Sun will travel a distance that is beyond the majority of the brightest stars, but not as far as the dimmest naked-eye stars. ==== The Pleiades Star Cluster ==== '''Figure 4a''' provides an SVG illustration of magnitude as used in astronomy. The Pleiades Star Cluster is a good example to illustrate star magnitude. The cluster lies at an average distance of about 136.2 parsecs (approximately 444 light-years) from Earth, with the entire physical cluster spanning only about 4 to 5 parsecs in depth and width. There are over 1,000 stars in the cluster, but shared gravity keeps them traveling through space together as a single family. Because the total internal gravity is relatively weak, it takes millions of years for a star to complete an orbital loop around the cluster's center, and the stars will eventually drift apart. The Pleiades system, shown in '''Figure 4b''', has a combined apparent magnitude of 1.6. The nine brightest stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' have representatives ranging from third-magnitude stars to sixth-magnitude stars. A star map of the system from the Hubble Space Telescope is shown in '''Figure 4d'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; background: transparent;color:inherit;" |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:Magnitude_illustration.svg|thumb|right|340px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 4a:''' An SVG illustration of magnitude in astronomy.]] |- | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 200 |cWidth = 120 |cHeight = 120 |oTop = 12 |oLeft = 40 |Location = left |Description = '''Figure 4b:''' The combined apparent magnitude of the Pleiades star cluster (Messier 45) is approximately 1.6 when viewed together as a group. }} | style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | {{CSS image crop |Image = Pleiades_over_Arizona.jpg |bSize = 1700 |cWidth = 180 |cHeight = 180 |oTop = 500 |oLeft = 750 |Location = center |Description = '''Figure 4c:''' The nine brightest stars in the cluster includes 1 third-magnitude star, 5 fourth-magnitude stars, 2 fifth-magnitude stars, and 1 sixth magnitude star. }} |- | colspan = 2; style="border: none; padding: 10px;" | [[File:M45map.jpg|thumb|right|340px|alt=A deep space photograph of bright stars with overlaid text labels naming individual stars and some distances.|'''Figure 4d:''' A star map of the Pleiades star cluster from the Hubble Space Telescope.]] |} == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 5a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 5a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 5a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value was just '''a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. === Bully Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of the Bully timekeeping system, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' will be defined to have a time duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 5b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline from 1 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per orbital timestamp aligns the highest digits directly with major cosmic eras. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 5b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- | 1 / 512 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁸''' | 96.83 | 101.56 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 520 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 260''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 100 |} === Bully Galactic Weeks === The table in '''Figure 5c''' illustrates the division of a Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized circular orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 5c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 5d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 5d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, the path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) by 6.9803° and the ratio of (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 5c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''8209 D89D 89D8''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5e:''' Week zero, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || Solar Distance Traveled || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. So while the table in '''Figure 5e''' states that 1.008 Weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds with 1008 parsecs of displacement, this claim must be understood as an idealized relationship based on a perfectly uniform orbit. In the real world, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instance the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this real-world drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" reference columns within the Galactic Calendar must be updated from time to time. These revisions ensure that predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect best estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: * The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' * The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' To establish a completely rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} As described previously: bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. The coordinates of the invariable plane are dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are suitable for measuring time over short durations on Earth. In fact, these celestial movements form the basis for all legacy time units, including the day, week, month, and year. However, these motions are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift further away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. Therefore, a more permanent astronomical anchor—like the Bully timestamp system—is required for long-term tracking. The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' * July 23, 2055 on 8209 ED0'''8 FF9B''' * July 23, 2074 on 8209 ED0'''B FE45''' * July 23, 2093 on 8209 ED0'''E FCE6''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ou6fq9ufaymtr65re2ul3jhyl90rgre 0 322909 2822210 2774009 2026-08-15T08:42:41Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ Edited the first two paragraphs of the overview to improve readability. Fixed spelling, grammar, and wording issues. 2822210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Spirituality and resilience:<br>What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Resilience in admist of psychological distress]] '''Blessed by the emotional resilience course''' Based on a testimony shared from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints{{f}}. ''"I was struggling at work and in my marriage, and I wasn’t sure where to turn''" Ciara was struggling with the combination of stress, boundaries, and feelings of inadequacy from her job. On top of difficult conflicts with her marriage. Her lack of self-confidence created hopelessness and the absence of tools to help navigate the constant stress made her problems seem like they were consuming her whole. Ciara and her husband seeked help from their bishop at their church, hoping to get some guidence. They were invited to participate in a new emotional resilience course from the church resources. She was skeptical that it would change anything. Her thoughts in her ability to manage difficult feelings of negativity and anxitey doubted that she could get better. But through diligence, a scripture verse changed her. ''"I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly.” - John 10:10'' In that moment, she desired to truly live a life that was more abundant. Making her deicision, she willingly became open-minded to experiences of the Spirit and apply the learning she gained from God. '''Coming closer to faith''' While practical application created positive changes in her life, it was how the resources centered on her faith in Jesus Christ that made the difference for her. ''"The course’s format was divinely inspired. From its language to the focus of the lessons, it helped me become more confident in myself and in what the Savior can help me do."'' The principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ provided courage through situations that festered anxiety. Turning to her faith in God and Christ in moments of self-doubt reminded her worth. Her faith and accomplishment utilmately stregthen her emotional resilience. ''"...if I continued to have false perceptions about who I was or the challenges I was facing, I was only preventing myself from deepening my faith and experiencing growth."'' '''Learning to understand''' Tools and knowledge from the course slowly shifted her mindset and change negative habits. She kept track of the progress in her notebook that reflects the her growth over the course. She found reassurance that struggles weren't inherrently bad. Over time she became more comfortable in dealing with diffcult emotions during challenges, and her recognition of the Spirit provided comfort and peace. The techniques increased self-awareness and acceptance that life would always be full of hardships, however struggling wasn't a sign something is wrong but indiacated a learning opportunity of growth in adversity. ''"They are all part of the journey, and the ones I was going through at work and in my marriage were going to help me grow on my path back to Heavenly Father."'' {{RoundBoxBottom}} Through the example of Ciara's story of practically applying faith, [[wikipedia:Spiritualism_(movement)|spiritualism]] boosted her strength which led to the positive changes in her life. Her spiritual experiences gave her inner power to exercise her autonomy, act in faith, and cultivate positive feelings. These experiences supported her to develop resilience and cope with loses. They also gave her courage to foster peace and connection in her life. In order for resilience to be effective, it requires the desire to change. Interventions can develop resources that promote desirable, valued outcomes. Interventions adjust conditions of a given situation to increase the likelihood of the desired outcome. The structure of interventions (see Table 1.) can assist in bringing about change. However, changes with complexity require persistence, feedback, and refinement to be successful (Reeve, 2018). ===== '''Table 1. Plan of Interventions''' ===== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Steps !Description !Alterations |- | # Explain |Diagnose why the situation was happening, the motivation of the behaviour. |x |- |2. Predict |Educated guess of what happen if X, Y, or Z changed |x |- |3. Intervene |Apply motivation and emotion principles | * environments * relationships * motivations * emotions |- |4. Observe/measure/adjust |Measure key processes and outcomes, track regular progress, adjust based on evidence, document what was done, changed and the reason for. |x |} ''Note''. Based on Reeve (2018). ==== '''How can psychological science help undersand{{sp}} resilience and spirituality?''' ==== Understanding emotional resilience as an adaptive skill that can be used as an intervention and having a recovering nature from hardship, its main components can be explain through psycholgical{{sp}} science. Highlighting that meaning-making, hope, and positive reframing are key to the foundations of resilience, and spirituality can help nurture. By understadning the integration of spiritual practices and resilience stress can be managed effectively, support in finding purpose, and maintain well-being in uncertainty. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg||24px|left]] ;Focus questions * How does spirituality and resilience work together? * What goes into resilience? * How does spirituality benefit in emotional resilience? * What are some practical applications of spirituality to build resilience? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Spirituality and resilience dynamic == [[File:Flamenco, Cáncer y dualidad.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Concepts of spirituality]] The purpose of change is to alter a situation to have desired outcomes occur. Spirituality and resilience play pivitol roles in acheiveing the goal. Change within complex challenges require three components to be maintained; persistence, feedback and refinement (Reeve, 2018). Persistency drives from the emotional response of resilience to adversity that create contributing experiences to sense of purpose and meaning in life events. Through awareness of growth by observations during adversity feelings of happiness are cultivated which promotes sprituality as a source of enlightenment.[[File:The_Broaden-and-Build_Theory_of_Positive_Emotions_('Upward_Spirl'_cycle)_Cohn.,_Fredrickson_2010.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions (Source: Cohn & Fredrickson, 2010)]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory]] actions promotes positive feelings that the awareness of transformation overcomes stress with posititve meaning, contributing to expandtion the capacity of growth (Fredrickson, 2001). Acting on the positive notions, opportunity of vulnerability occurs to cultivate favourable conditions and resources needed to develop coping skills (Fredrickson, 2001). Tools consitently used in challenging circumstances creates the self-sustaining cycle (see Figure 3). Dimishing autonomic arousal and broadens attention as 'upward spirl' increases the reoccurance of posititve experiences (Fredrickson, 2001). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg||24px|left]] ;Example - Goal setting '''How can spirituality promote emtional resilience in goal setting?''' Goal setting can significantly enhance resilience through achievable and clear objectives that acts as a map to provide a sense of direction to guide behaviours and decisions. As resilience responds to obsticales, the feedback provided assist to determine if certain spiritual experiences benefit to sense of purpose. And optimise actions that is in control to reduce feelings of helplessness in adversity. Involving specific goals that break down overwhleming challenges to a manageable capacity, fostering sense of accomplishment contributing to self-efficacy and source of direction. E.g. a spiritual principle can be followed by a set of guidelines given to develop resilience that is promised to contribute to deepening sense of spirituality. Suggested achieveable goals and support provided in the spiritual community encourages individuals to strive in relying on divine wisdom.{{RoundBoxBottom}} While resilience benefits from positive factors contributing to it's development, the further progression needs adversity. Adversity unique role creates the desired outcome of personal growth from the conditions of stress and challenging situations that promotes the emergence of opportunity in vulnerability, which functions to expand the capacity of resilience through actions of coping and allow spiritual experiences of hope enhance the resilient effects during adversity. Traditionally '[[wikipedia:Risk|risk]]' is associated with negative outcomes, however it can become a valued resilience-enhancing experience. The risk and protective model "steering effect" with interacting in moderate level of risk, the outcome of the experiences can bolster resilience by preparing for future challenges (Rutter, M., 1987). Once vulnerability is succesfully experienced in the risk with [[wikipedia:Protective_factor|protective factors]], the buffer to risk factors promotes positive development and well-being (Rutter, M., 1987). [[File:Identity Status Theory Diagram.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Foreclosure and Diffusion (early stages) Acheviement and Moratorium (later stages)]] The interest of spirituality development often begins with a reason and understanding spiritual concepts comes from maturing and comparing from experiences. [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|Erikson's psychosocial development theory (1950)]] development of maturity of the self from [[wikipedia:Midlife_crisis|life crises]] and level of commitment identifies four statuses (see Figure 4.). The later stages highlights key periods where exploration of spirituality occurs (Kasprow, M. C., 1999). Involving active questioning, exploration and experiments of spiritual principles that excersies autonomy in personal commitments. As more spiritual experiences occurs, a profound source of purpose and behaviour stregthens resilience through connection of daily practices cultivating faith (Haugan G, et al., 2021). ==Resilience in psychology and spirituality== [[File:ABA 1.png|thumb|FIgure 5. Resilience built in psychology while facing adversity]] [[wikipedia:Psychological_resilience|Resilience]] in psychology is an essential factor in developing the ability to adapt to the adversities of life. Resilience often occurs as a complex phenomenon where internal and external factors influence the ability to cope, adapt, recover, and endure difficult circumstances, including an individual's [[wikipedia:Attribution_(psychology)|attribution]]. Several [[wikipedia:Theoretical_psychology|psychological theories]] explore the possible factors and processes that contribute to the development of resilience, involving [[wikipedia:Behavioral_neuroscience|biological]] , [[wikipedia:Psychosocial|social]], [[wikipedia:Cultural_psychology|cultural]] and [[wikipedia:Environmental_psychology|environmental]] factors in the overall development and outcomes (Steven M. Southwick et al., 2014). Through in-depth perspective of different dimensions and roles involved, it could explain the development of certain characteristics of resilience people can possess (e.g. why some people are more resilient than others). And how exploring certain conditions can lead to the different outcomes in the development of traits, such as the concepts of nature vs nurture, external factors role in the development and the expansion of the capability in [[wikipedia:Coping|coping]] with life stressors. == Nature of resilience and spirituality == [[File:Attachment Theory Two Dimension Model.png|thumb|Figure 6. Secure and insecure attachments formation]] Resilience is an importnant resource for survival throughout the human lifespan. The lifespan goes through various experience, requiring adpaptation to overcome stress and challenges. The strength and ability of adaptation can determine the outcome of psychological wellbeing, similar to the concept of [[wikipedia:Darwinism|Darwinism]]. [[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] explains how the natural development of interaction create innate basis of resource for support, and certain charctersitcs overcome adversity more effectively than others (seen Figure 6). The influencing factors invovled in developing an outcome in it's timing can lead to greater advantage in character development that reflect consitency, repsonsiveness and healthy mental representation such as posittve self-concept, higher self-efficacy (Harwood, E., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]] '''A Case Study of Attachment and Resilience Variance in a Midwestern Family (Kelly Inda, 2014)''' Attachment theory adds to the weight of resilience theory by clearly outlining the significance of relationships as the key to most aspects of resilience. Kelly Inda's (2014) qualitative case study explored indicators of resilience that support attachment between a child and their parents. The research focused on indicators of resilience in a healthy attachments to thrive, with one family studied over three interview sessions (Kelly Inda, 2014). Themes included communication during times of crisis and how families use religious practices to aid in times of crisis and resilience patterns the family developed. High need for communication during times of crisis (Inda, K., 2014). More communication was used, the better resilience was built ready for future crisis to occur. And consistency of spiritual practices assisted in the navigation of the crisis (Inda, K., 2014). Concluding that these two factors indicate how crucial families attachments develop resilience during difficult times and through it forms bonds that support resilience overall.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The same prinicples of developmental stages of human lifespan can be applied to the development of spirituality. Fowler's Faith development model (1981) explains several stages experienced as faith develops, from primal to reaching enlgihtment (Friedmann, H., 2010). Having spiritual influences intergrated during the primal timing can provide the opportunity for stronger foundation to foster faith, resulting in advantage to progress later in life (Friedmann, H., 2010). The timing shapes the momentum of progression into a self-organised being, which could lead to reaching a higher [[wikipedia:Self-concept|sense of self]] through embodying universal principles of selfless compassion. (Friedmann, H., 2010). Despite natural development determine specific outcomes of chatacter, the outcome of resilience can be changed. The main components of resilience is flexability through adaptaion. Luthar (2000) and Ungar (2016) dynamic theory argues that regardless consenquences of influencing factors, resilience is an on-going process of persistent change of adaptation in adversity. This explains how the effects of interactive factors, such as adversity, change over time (Luthar, S.S., 2000., Ungar, M., 2016). The use of context allow considerations of complex factors that emerge in certain situations, however during the process of resilience overcome adversity allows opportunities from vulnerabilties to strengthen resilience overall (Gerring, J. P., & Wade, S., 2012). == Nurturing role == [[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Diagram.png|thumb|Figure 7. Masclow's Hierarchy of Needs, with lower needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top.]]Nurturing is having an influence of the environment that is consitently present in life, as seen in biological roles of mothers possessing nuturing traits, the outcome of upbringing on personalities and behaviours, and responses and social interactions infleunces in life experiences. Spirituality can enhance the nurturing role in developing resileince as explained by positive psychology that utilise self-improvement to achieve s[[wikipedia:Self-actualization|elf-actualisation]], as mentioned in Carl Roger's theory, [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Masclow's]] heirchacy of fulllfilling needs (see Figure 7) and Reed's (2018) psychological needs of autonomy, compentance and reladtedness. Priotising autonomy values the impact choices have when drawn from emotional resilience through supportive environments that promote authencity, personal growth, sense of purpose and progression to connecting beyond the self (Sargeant, S., Yoxall, J., 2023). [[File:Reed-self-transcendence-1991.webp|thumb|Figure 8. Interactions of the relationships and factors in self-transcendence theory]]Reed's (1992) Intergrate Spirituality Model (ISM) provides a framework of the workings of nursing self-transcendence theory combining lifespan developmental psychology and unitary human beings (Fukuyama, M. A., and Sevig, T. D., 1999). The main relationships (see Figure 8) showcase transcending challenges, indicating that self-transcendence is essential in promoting health and well-being during difficult circumstances (Fukuyama, M. A., and Sevig, T. D., 1999). With happiness being the ideal outcome that can occur from cultivated contributing actions, experiences of emotional states in happiness can increase relying on resources associated to the behaviour that cause the outcome. Such happiness can promote the inner power of resilience to cope and manage adversity that nuture dignity, authenticity and inner strengths (Bushkin H, et al.,2021). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]] ;What is happiness? '''Learn more about a type of happiness in [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic_well-being Eudaimonic_well-being]'''{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Choices lead to consenquences == [[wikipedia:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] focuses that finding purpose in life leads to fullfilling optimal functionality and growth of wellbeing (Frankl, V., 1930). The concepts of freedom of will, will to meaning and meaning of life connects to reaching the highest contentment of life based on the alignement of uniques beliefs (Batthyany, 2019). When autonomy is excerised based on outcomes of adversity or ideal preference, it can lead to different occurance of progression in growth from maturity, attitude, and tolerance. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]] ;Research model 1. '''How can spirituality promote emtional resilience in psychological cognition?''' Rosmarin (2011) model of integrating spirituality and cognitive theory shows the outcome of divine beliefs affects to psychological symptoms through measuring intolerance of uncertainty (IU). Beliefs of needing to worry to avoid future adverse outcomes can create the cycle of worry, such as generalised anxiety disorder. The low level of IU involving negative beliefs led to the interpretation of more open situations negatively (Fialko, L., 2012). The model suggests that trusting in God or a higher being can serve as a buffer in reducing the evaluation of threats with a general psychological resource during adversaries (Rosmarin, D. H., 2011). However, a backfire effect can occur the case of soley relying on divinty as the main source of defense causes mistrust. Which could lead to increasing IU and worry, worsening threat perceptions during ambiguity (Rosmarin, D. H., 2011).{{RoundBoxBottom}} Through the practices of resilience, suffering's interpretation as part of human experience promotes automony in attitude towards finding meaning (Batthyany, 2019). By reframing distress with posittive outlook of meaning, a deeper sense of life satisfaction is experience (Lichtenthal WG, et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]] ;What does growth from adversity look like? '''See examples in [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Growth_through_adversity 'Growth through adversity'] book chapter''' {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Resilience and spirituality dualism == Resilience is an element that each individual needs to have as part of human experiences throughout the lifespan. The lifespan has all sorts of challenges, stress, losses, and difficulties that require adapability to grow. The development of growth in psychology includes different perspectives, the most infamous being the nature vs nurture debate. However, the reality shows that both concepts occurs through complex dynamic interactions that ultimately shapes the outcome of growth. ==== Coping through resilience and spirituality ==== Frankl's (1930) logotherapy emphasised empowerment of [[wikipedia:Agency_(philosophy)|agency]], with choices of responding in adverse situations fostering resilience, along with acceptance of suffering and focus on purpose that promotes endurance and [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] (Frankl, V., 1930). Utilising logotherapy concepts algined to one's beliefs and faithful practices can fortify resilience during hardships and confront existential issues with positivity (Frankl, V., 1930) while promoting connection, [[wikipedia:Hope|hope] and acceptance.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]] ;Case study 1. '''Spirituality in mental health, youth and LGBT+''' Problems with internalised conflict, shame, discrimination, supporting spiritual resources, and external influences were the main findings of a comprehensive literature search on spirituality, mental health, and LGBT+ youth by Mcann, E. (2020). Despite its challenges, the attitude of compassion and acceptance, as well as connections with strong essences, nature, and living things, often correspond to positive qualities that connect to a higher being (Mcann, E., 2020). Spiritual beliefs, through faith and coping mechanisms, built resilience and serve as protective barriers against harmful stimuli (Mcann, E., 2020).{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==== Enduring adversity with meaning and faith ==== Resilience's adaptive and enduring nature enables individuals to foster inner strength during adversity. The roles of protective factors and flexible responses allows positive outcomes across contexts (Luthar, S. S., 2000; Ungar, M., 2016). Fatih is rooted in perserverance when circumstances seem uncertain, Fowler’s (1981) faith development theory links strong developed resilience of hope from the early stages of faith. Rutter (1987) moderation of adversity and protective factors strengthens coping, and spirituality that promote uplifting attitudes of divine connection, and integration with cultural socioecological network. ==== Pursuing growth and transformation ==== Going through adverse life events can enable individuals to learn to pursue growth and be positively transformed by them. Spirituality can be a resource that supports adaptation and resilience to achieve an improved quality of life. As individuals pursue the meaning of life (Frankl, V., 1930) through positive emotions of contribution to communities (Fredrickson, 2001) and utilise their ecological culture [[wikipedia:Ecological_systems_theory|(Bronfenbrenner, 1979)]] it can result in a transition of transcendence and affirming values.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]] ;Case study 2. '''Spirituality connects resilience in Latinos with cancer''' Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F. (2015) literature review found that in Latino culture, spirituality is an integral cultural value. It plays a crucial role in the cultural values interactions in health-related problems, as seen in caring for Latino cancer patients who adjust and cope (Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F., 2015). Understanding the application of resilience during active treatment can impact the effectiveness og managment and coping with consequences during survivorship (Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F., 2015). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == Emotional resilience adaptive nature in intervention is demostrated through psycholgical science. Meaning-making through spirituality is key to building the foundations of resilience. Spirituality servies as practical application of nurture and resilience's attributes can result in effective management of stress. Intergration results in support of finding a greater sense of purpose, and maintain ultimate well-being in uncertainty. The natural development of resilience and spirituality is importnant throughout the human lifespan. The strength and ability of adaptation can determine the outcome of psychological wellbeing, however the outcome of resilience can be changed. Spirituality provides enhancement of developing resileince through self-improvement to achieve self-actualisation. When autonomy is excerised, it can lead to progression in growth of maturity, attitude, and tolerance. The reality of the dualism occurs through complex dynamic interactions that ultimately shapes the outcome of growth. As seen in coping through spirituality, enduring adversity with faith and pursuing growth and transformation. == See also == [[simple:Resilience]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Spirituality and mental health|Spirituality and mental health: How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being?]] (Book chpater, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Death and meaning in life|Death and meaning in life: How does confronting mortality influence the sense of meaning in life?]] (Book chapter, 2023) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development: How can a growth mindset be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2018) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Growth mindset and mental health|Growth mindset and mental health: What is the relationship between growth mindset and mental health?]] (Book chapter, 2023) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barker, C. Blessed by the Emotional Resilience Course. 2021. LDS. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/liahona/2021/09/digital-only/blessed-by-the-emotional-resilience-course?lang=eng Bushkin H, et al. (2021). Searching for meaning in chaos: Viktor Frankl’s story. Carl Folke, Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses, Global Environmental Change, Volume 16, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 253-267. doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002. Batthyany, A. (2019). What is logotherapy/existential analysis? Logotherapy and existential analysis. Viktor Frankl Institut. https://www.viktorfrankl.org/logotherapy.html Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 9(3), 361–368. doi.org/10.1037/a0015952 Egozi Farkash, H., Lahad, M., & Aharonson-Daniel, L. (2023). Do Attachment Orientations Relate to Coping with Crises? Lessons from a Cross-Sectional Study during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(12), 6177. doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20126177 Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The American psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 Friedmann, Harris & Krippner, Stanley & Riebel, Linda & Johnson, Chad. (2010). Models of Spiritual Development. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. 29. 53-70. Fukuyama, M. A., & Sevig, T. D. (1999). An integrative model and spiritual interventions. In An integrative model and spiritual interventions (pp. 155-168). SAGE Publications, Inc., https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231945.n9 Gerring, J. P., & Wade, S. (2012). The essential role of psychosocial risk and protective factors in pediatric traumatic brain injury research. Journal of neurotrauma, 29(4), 621–628. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2234 Gibbs, L. A. L., Anderson, M. I., Simpson, G. K., & Jones, K. F. (2020). Spirituality and resilience among family caregivers of survivors of stroke: A scoping review. NeuroRehabilitation, 46(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-192946 Harwood, E. (2024). Resilience as a Secure Attachment Pattern. In Cultivating Systemic Resilience in Therapy (pp. 114-130). Routledge. Haugan G, et al. (2021). Meaning-in-life: A vital salutogenic resource for health. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-63135-2_8 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8542392/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8763215/ Inda, K. (2014). A Case Study of Attachment and Resilience Variance in a Midwestern Family. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1092&context=honors_theses Kasprow, M. C., & Scotton, B. W. (1999). A review of transpersonal theory and its application to the practice of psychotherapy. The Journal of psychotherapy practice and research, 8(1), 12–23. Laura Fialko, Derek Bolton, Sean Perrin, Applicability of a cognitive model of worry to children and adolescents, Behaviour Research and Therapy, Volume 50, Issue 5, 2012, 341-349, doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.003. Lichtenthal WG, et al. (2020). Meaning-centered psychotherapy and cancer: Finding meaning in the face of suffering. Luthar SS, Cicchetti D. The construct of resilience: implications for interventions and social policies. Dev Psychopathol. 2000 Autumn;12(4):857-85. doi: 10.1017/s0954579400004156. PMID: 11202047; PMCID: PMC1903337. Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., & Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health. Developmental psychology, 52(3), 496–508. doi.org/10.1037/a0039875 Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan (pp. 19–34). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_2 McCann, E., Donohue, G. & Timmins, F. (2020). An Exploration of the Relationship Between Spirituality, Religion and Mental Health Among Youth Who Identify as LGBT+: A Systematic Literature Review. J Relig Health 59 (1), 828–844. doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-00989-7 Michael Ungar, Designing resilience research: Using multiple methods to investigate risk exposure, promotive and protective processes, and contextually relevant outcomes for children and youth, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 96, 2019, 104098. doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104098. Raghavan, S., & Sandanapitchai, P. (2024). The relationship between cultural variables and resilience to psychological trauma: A systematic review of the literature. Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives. European journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338. doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1C-xiQ36Bek&ab_channel=AmericanPsychologicalAssociation Building resilience in the face of adversity, with George Bonanno, PhD | Speaking of Psychology] (youtube.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNfdlAZlgHQ&t=88s&ab_channel=TEDxTalks Building Resiliency Through Spirituality | Madison Jaye | TEDxNJIT] (youtube.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbFBm7Hd0dk&t=1s The Father of Resilience Theory – Buzz Holling] (youtube.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C-ZIUtJr8nE&t=591s Attachment and resilience -- the power of one: Dr. Erica Liu Wollin at TEDxHongKong 2013] (youtube.com) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychological resilience]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Spirituality]] 12gwcw34zefywstfjfwsg15wq1605vq 0 323153 2822183 2822067 2026-08-15T02:56:08Z Greg Philips 3107427 /* Emotion */ Added Name 2822183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy–value theory of educational motivation/]] - What is expectancy–value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] – What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] – How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? - User Name # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] – When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] – How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|U3275546}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] – What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] – What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] – How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] – How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] – How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] – How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] – How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] 5vmb503o4uvet4gxxtr29c5zrr8an4l 2822196 2822183 2026-08-15T06:06:46Z Jshottt 3107442 /* Motivation */ u3284454 selected topic 2822196 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy–value theory of educational motivation/]] - What is expectancy–value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] – What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] – How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? - User Name # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] – When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] – How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|U3275546}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] – What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] – What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] – How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] – How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] – How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] – How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] – How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] ovusq99epd1cnrahzmbuu38dabbky7u 2822232 2822196 2026-08-15T11:06:49Z Jtneill 10242 Fix user name 2822232 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy–value theory of educational motivation/]] - What is expectancy–value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] – What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] – How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? - User Name # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] – When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] – How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|U3275546}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] – What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] – What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] – How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] – How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] – How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] – How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] – How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] gxqdf27z4kjq6xv389jpgwjwaxouyr0 0 324242 2822140 2755709 2026-08-14T22:56:51Z IanVG 2918363 added saturated steam table based on coolprop 2822140 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Saturated steam properties as a function of absolute pressure ! rowspan="2" | Absolute pressure<br />(bar) ! rowspan="2" | Vaporization point<br />(°C) ! rowspan="2" | Specific volume of steam<br />(m³/kg) ! rowspan="2" | Density of steam<br />(kg/m³) ! colspan="2" | Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid water ! colspan="2" | Specific enthalpy of saturated steam ! colspan="2" | Latent heat of vaporization ! rowspan="2" | Specific heat of saturated steam<br />(kJ/(kg·K)) ! rowspan="2" | Absolute pressure<br />(bar) |- ! (kJ/kg) ! (kcal/kg) ! (kJ/kg) ! (kcal/kg) ! (kJ/kg) ! (kcal/kg) |- | 0.02 || 17.49 || 66.987 || 0.015 || 73.43 || 17.54 || 2532.88 || 604.97 || 2459.45 || 587.43 || 1.9030 || 0.02 |- | 0.03 || 24.08 || 45.653 || 0.022 || 100.98 || 24.12 || 2544.84 || 607.82 || 2443.86 || 583.71 || 1.9107 || 0.03 |- | 0.04 || 28.96 || 34.791 || 0.029 || 121.39 || 28.99 || 2553.67 || 609.93 || 2432.28 || 580.94 || 1.9167 || 0.04 |- | 0.05 || 32.87 || 28.185 || 0.035 || 137.75 || 32.90 || 2560.73 || 611.62 || 2422.98 || 578.72 || 1.9217 || 0.05 |- | 0.06 || 36.16 || 23.733 || 0.042 || 151.48 || 36.18 || 2566.63 || 613.03 || 2415.15 || 576.85 || 1.9261 || 0.06 |- | 0.07 || 39.00 || 20.524 || 0.049 || 163.35 || 39.02 || 2571.72 || 614.24 || 2408.37 || 575.23 || 1.9300 || 0.07 |- | 0.08 || 41.51 || 18.099 || 0.055 || 173.84 || 41.52 || 2576.21 || 615.32 || 2402.37 || 573.80 || 1.9336 || 0.08 |- | 0.09 || 43.76 || 16.199 || 0.062 || 183.25 || 43.77 || 2580.22 || 616.28 || 2396.97 || 572.51 || 1.9369 || 0.09 |- | 0.1 || 45.81 || 14.670 || 0.068 || 191.81 || 45.81 || 2583.86 || 617.14 || 2392.05 || 571.33 || 1.9400 || 0.1 |- | 0.2 || 60.06 || 7.648 || 0.131 || 251.42 || 60.05 || 2608.94 || 623.13 || 2357.51 || 563.08 || 1.9649 || 0.2 |- | 0.3 || 69.10 || 5.228 || 0.191 || 289.27 || 69.09 || 2624.55 || 626.86 || 2335.27 || 557.77 || 1.9841 || 0.3 |- | 0.4 || 75.86 || 3.993 || 0.250 || 317.62 || 75.86 || 2636.05 || 629.61 || 2318.43 || 553.75 || 2.0007 || 0.4 |- | 0.5 || 81.32 || 3.240 || 0.309 || 340.54 || 81.34 || 2645.22 || 631.80 || 2304.67 || 550.46 || 2.0157 || 0.5 |- | 0.6 || 85.93 || 2.732 || 0.366 || 359.91 || 85.96 || 2652.86 || 633.62 || 2292.95 || 547.66 || 2.0296 || 0.6 |- | 0.7 || 89.93 || 2.365 || 0.423 || 376.75 || 89.99 || 2659.42 || 635.19 || 2282.67 || 545.21 || 2.0427 || 0.7 |- | 0.8 || 93.49 || 2.087 || 0.479 || 391.71 || 93.56 || 2665.18 || 636.57 || 2273.47 || 543.01 || 2.0551 || 0.8 |- | 0.9 || 96.69 || 1.869 || 0.535 || 405.20 || 96.78 || 2670.31 || 637.79 || 2265.12 || 541.01 || 2.0670 || 0.9 |- | 1 || 99.61 || 1.694 || 0.590 || 417.50 || 99.72 || 2674.95 || 638.90 || 2257.44 || 539.18 || 2.0784 || 1 |- | 1.1 || 102.29 || 1.549 || 0.645 || 428.84 || 102.43 || 2679.17 || 639.91 || 2250.33 || 537.48 || 2.0895 || 1.1 |- | 1.2 || 104.78 || 1.428 || 0.700 || 439.36 || 104.94 || 2683.05 || 640.84 || 2243.69 || 535.90 || 2.1003 || 1.2 |- | 1.3 || 107.11 || 1.325 || 0.755 || 449.19 || 107.29 || 2686.64 || 641.69 || 2237.46 || 534.41 || 2.1107 || 1.3 |- | 1.4 || 109.29 || 1.237 || 0.809 || 458.42 || 109.49 || 2689.98 || 642.49 || 2231.57 || 533.00 || 2.1210 || 1.4 |- | 1.5 || 111.35 || 1.159 || 0.863 || 467.13 || 111.57 || 2693.11 || 643.24 || 2225.98 || 531.67 || 2.1310 || 1.5 |- | 1.6 || 113.30 || 1.091 || 0.916 || 475.38 || 113.54 || 2696.04 || 643.94 || 2220.66 || 530.40 || 2.1407 || 1.6 |- | 1.7 || 115.15 || 1.031 || 0.970 || 483.22 || 115.42 || 2698.80 || 644.60 || 2215.58 || 529.18 || 2.1503 || 1.7 |- | 1.8 || 116.91 || 0.977 || 1.023 || 490.70 || 117.20 || 2701.41 || 645.22 || 2210.71 || 528.02 || 2.1598 || 1.8 |- | 1.9 || 118.60 || 0.929 || 1.076 || 497.85 || 118.91 || 2703.88 || 645.81 || 2206.03 || 526.90 || 2.1690 || 1.9 |- | 2 || 120.21 || 0.886 || 1.129 || 504.70 || 120.55 || 2706.23 || 646.37 || 2201.53 || 525.83 || 2.1782 || 2 |- | 2.2 || 123.25 || 0.810 || 1.234 || 517.63 || 123.63 || 2710.61 || 647.42 || 2192.98 || 523.78 || 2.1960 || 2.2 |- | 2.4 || 126.07 || 0.747 || 1.339 || 529.64 || 126.50 || 2714.61 || 648.37 || 2184.97 || 521.87 || 2.2134 || 2.4 |- | 2.6 || 128.71 || 0.693 || 1.444 || 540.87 || 129.19 || 2718.30 || 649.25 || 2177.42 || 520.07 || 2.2303 || 2.6 |- | 2.8 || 131.19 || 0.646 || 1.547 || 551.44 || 131.71 || 2721.71 || 650.07 || 2170.27 || 518.36 || 2.2469 || 2.8 |- | 3 || 133.52 || 0.606 || 1.651 || 561.43 || 134.09 || 2724.88 || 650.83 || 2163.46 || 516.73 || 2.2630 || 3 |- | 3.5 || 138.86 || 0.524 || 1.908 || 584.26 || 139.55 || 2731.96 || 652.52 || 2147.70 || 512.97 || 2.3022 || 3.5 |- | 4 || 143.61 || 0.462 || 2.163 || 604.65 || 144.42 || 2738.05 || 653.97 || 2133.40 || 509.55 || 2.3396 || 4 |- | 4.5 || 147.90 || 0.414 || 2.416 || 623.14 || 148.83 || 2743.39 || 655.25 || 2120.25 || 506.41 || 2.3756 || 4.5 |- | 5 || 151.83 || 0.375 || 2.668 || 640.09 || 152.88 || 2748.11 || 656.37 || 2108.02 || 503.49 || 2.4103 || 5 |- | 5.5 || 155.46 || 0.343 || 2.919 || 655.76 || 156.63 || 2752.33 || 657.38 || 2096.57 || 500.76 || 2.4439 || 5.5 |- | 6 || 158.83 || 0.316 || 3.169 || 670.38 || 160.12 || 2756.14 || 658.29 || 2085.77 || 498.18 || 2.4766 || 6 |- | 6.5 || 161.98 || 0.293 || 3.418 || 684.08 || 163.39 || 2759.60 || 659.12 || 2075.52 || 495.73 || 2.5083 || 6.5 |- | 7 || 164.95 || 0.273 || 3.666 || 697.00 || 166.48 || 2762.75 || 659.87 || 2065.75 || 493.40 || 2.5393 || 7 |- | 7.5 || 167.75 || 0.256 || 3.914 || 709.24 || 169.40 || 2765.64 || 660.56 || 2056.41 || 491.16 || 2.5695 || 7.5 |- | 8 || 170.41 || 0.240 || 4.161 || 720.86 || 172.18 || 2768.30 || 661.20 || 2047.44 || 489.02 || 2.5990 || 8 |- | 8.5 || 172.94 || 0.227 || 4.407 || 731.95 || 174.82 || 2770.76 || 661.78 || 2038.81 || 486.96 || 2.6279 || 8.5 |- | 9 || 175.35 || 0.215 || 4.654 || 742.56 || 177.36 || 2773.03 || 662.33 || 2030.47 || 484.97 || 2.6563 || 9 |- | 9.5 || 177.66 || 0.204 || 4.899 || 752.74 || 179.79 || 2775.14 || 662.83 || 2022.41 || 483.04 || 2.6841 || 9.5 |- | 10 || 179.88 || 0.194 || 5.145 || 762.52 || 182.12 || 2777.11 || 663.30 || 2014.59 || 481.18 || 2.7114 || 10 |- | 11 || 184.06 || 0.177 || 5.635 || 781.03 || 186.55 || 2780.65 || 664.15 || 1999.62 || 477.60 || 2.7647 || 11 |- | 12 || 187.96 || 0.163 || 6.125 || 798.33 || 190.68 || 2783.74 || 664.89 || 1985.41 || 474.21 || 2.8163 || 12 |- | 13 || 191.60 || 0.151 || 6.614 || 814.60 || 194.56 || 2786.46 || 665.53 || 1971.86 || 470.97 || 2.8666 || 13 |- | 14 || 195.04 || 0.141 || 7.103 || 829.97 || 198.23 || 2788.85 || 666.10 || 1958.88 || 467.87 || 2.9157 || 14 |- | 15 || 198.29 || 0.132 || 7.592 || 844.56 || 201.72 || 2790.96 || 666.61 || 1946.40 || 464.89 || 2.9636 || 15 |- | 16 || 201.37 || 0.124 || 8.081 || 858.46 || 205.04 || 2792.82 || 667.05 || 1934.36 || 462.01 || 3.0106 || 16 |- | 17 || 204.31 || 0.117 || 8.571 || 871.74 || 208.21 || 2794.46 || 667.45 || 1922.72 || 459.23 || 3.0568 || 17 |- | 18 || 207.11 || 0.110 || 9.061 || 884.47 || 211.25 || 2795.91 || 667.79 || 1911.43 || 456.54 || 3.1022 || 18 |- | 19 || 209.80 || 0.105 || 9.551 || 896.71 || 214.18 || 2797.18 || 668.09 || 1900.47 || 453.92 || 3.1469 || 19 |- | 20 || 212.38 || 0.100 || 10.042 || 908.50 || 216.99 || 2798.29 || 668.36 || 1889.79 || 451.37 || 3.1910 || 20 |- | 21 || 214.86 || 0.095 || 10.533 || 919.87 || 219.71 || 2799.26 || 668.59 || 1879.39 || 448.88 || 3.2347 || 21 |- | 22 || 217.25 || 0.091 || 11.026 || 930.87 || 222.34 || 2800.10 || 668.79 || 1869.23 || 446.46 || 3.2778 || 22 |- | 23 || 219.56 || 0.087 || 11.519 || 941.53 || 224.88 || 2800.82 || 668.96 || 1859.29 || 444.08 || 3.3205 || 23 |- | 24 || 221.79 || 0.083 || 12.013 || 951.87 || 227.35 || 2801.43 || 669.11 || 1849.56 || 441.76 || 3.3629 || 24 |- | 25 || 223.95 || 0.080 || 12.508 || 961.91 || 229.75 || 2801.93 || 669.23 || 1840.03 || 439.48 || 3.4050 || 25 |- | 26 || 226.05 || 0.077 || 13.004 || 971.67 || 232.08 || 2802.34 || 669.33 || 1830.67 || 437.25 || 3.4468 || 26 |- | 27 || 228.08 || 0.074 || 13.501 || 981.18 || 234.35 || 2802.66 || 669.40 || 1821.48 || 435.05 || 3.4883 || 27 |- | 28 || 230.06 || 0.071 || 14.000 || 990.46 || 236.57 || 2802.90 || 669.46 || 1812.45 || 432.90 || 3.5297 || 28 |- | 29 || 231.98 || 0.069 || 14.500 || 999.51 || 238.73 || 2803.06 || 669.50 || 1803.56 || 430.77 || 3.5709 || 29 |- | 30 || 233.85 || 0.067 || 15.001 || 1008.34 || 240.84 || 2803.15 || 669.52 || 1794.81 || 428.68 || 3.6119 || 30 |} ''Calculation note:'' Values were generated with [https://coolprop.org/ CoolProp 8.0.0] using the HEOS water model. Pressure is absolute; saturated liquid uses quality Q = 0 and saturated vapor uses Q = 1. kcal values use 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Absolute Pressure (bar) ! Vaporization Point (Celsius) ! Specific Volume (m^3/kg) ! Density (steam) ! colspan="2" | Specific Enthalpy of Liquid Water (sensible heat) ! colspan="2" | Specific Enthalpy of Steam (total heat) (kJ/kg) ! colspan="2" | Latent Heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg) ! Specific Heat ! style="vertical-align:middle;" | Absolute Pressure |- | (bar) | (oC) | (m3/kg) | (kg/m3) | (kJ/kg) | (kcal/kg) | (kJ/kg) | (kcal/kg) | (kJ/kg) | (kcal/kg) | (kJ/kg K) | style="vertical-align:middle;" | (bar)<br /> |- | 0.02 | 17.51 | 67.006 | 0.015 | 73.45 | 17.54 | 2533.64 | 605.15 | 2460.19 | 587.61 | 1.8644 | 0.02 |- | 0.03 | 24.1 | 45.667 | 0.022 | 101 | 24.12 | 2545.64 | 608.02 | 2444.65 | 583.89 | 1.8694 | 0.03 |- | 0.04 | 28.98 | 34.802 | 0.029 | 121.41 | 29 | 2554.51 | 610.13 | 2433.1 | 581.14 | 1.8736 | 0.04 |- | 0.05 | 32.9 | 28.194 | 0.035 | 137.77 | 32.91 | 2561.59 | 611.83 | 2423.82 | 578.92 | 1.8774 | 0.05 |- | 0.06 | 36.18 | 23.741 | 0.042 | 151.5 | 36.19 | 2567.51 | 613.24 | 2416.01 | 577.05 | 1.8808 | 0.06 |- | 0.07 | 39.02 | 20.531 | 0.049 | 163.38 | 39.02 | 2572.62 | 614.46 | 2409.24 | 575.44 | 1.884 | 0.07 |- | 0.08 | 41.53 | 18.105 | 0.055 | 173.87 | 41.53 | 2577.11 | 615.53 | 2403.25 | 574.01 | 1.8871 | 0.08 |- | 0.09 | 43.79 | 16.204 | 0.062 | 183.28 | 43.78 | 2581.14 | 616.49 | 2397.85 | 572.72 | 1.8899 | 0.09 |- | 0.1 | 45.83 | 14.675 | 0.068 | 191.84 | 45.82 | 2584.78 | 617.36 | 2392.94 | 571.54 | 1.8927 | 0.1 |- | 0.2 | 60.09 | 7.65 | 0.131 | 251.46 | 60.06 | 2609.86 | 623.35 | 2358.4 | 563.3 | 1.9156 | 0.2 |- | 0.3 | 69.13 | 5.229 | 0.191 | 289.31 | 69.1 | 2625.43 | 627.07 | 2336.13 | 557.97 | 1.9343 | 0.3 |- | 0.4 | 75.89 | 3.993 | 0.25 | 317.65 | 75.87 | 2636.88 | 629.81 | 2319.23 | 553.94 | 1.9506 | 0.4 |- | 0.5 | 81.35 | 3.24 | 0.309 | 340.57 | 81.34 | 2645.99 | 631.98 | 2305.42 | 550.64 | 1.9654 | 0.5 |- | 0.6 | 85.95 | 2.732 | 0.366 | 359.93 | 85.97 | 2653.57 | 633.79 | 2293.64 | 547.83 | 1.979 | 0.6 |- | 0.7 | 89.96 | 2.365 | 0.423 | 376.77 | 89.99 | 2660.07 | 635.35 | 2283.3 | 545.36 | 1.9919 | 0.7 |- | 0.8 | 93.51 | 2.087 | 0.479 | 391.73 | 93.56 | 2665.77 | 636.71 | 2274.05 | 543.15 | 2.004 | 0.8 |- | 0.9 | 96.71 | 1.869 | 0.535 | 405.21 | 96.78 | 2670.85 | 637.92 | 2265.65 | 541.14 | 2.0156 | 0.9 |- | 1 1) | 99.63 | 1.694 | 0.59 | 417.51 | 99.72 | 2675.43 | 639.02 | 2257.92 | 539.3 | 2.0267 | 1 1) |- | 1.1 | 102.32 | 1.549 | 0.645 | 428.84 | 102.43 | 2679.61 | 640.01 | 2250.76 | 537.59 | 2.0373 | 1.1 |- | 1.2 | 104.81 | 1.428 | 0.7 | 439.36 | 104.94 | 2683.44 | 640.93 | 2244.08 | 535.99 | 2.0476 | 1.2 |- | 1.3 | 107.13 | 1.325 | 0.755 | 449.19 | 107.29 | 2686.98 | 641.77 | 2237.79 | 534.49 | 2.0576 | 1.3 |- | 1.4 | 109.32 | 1.236 | 0.809 | 458.42 | 109.49 | 2690.28 | 642.56 | 2231.86 | 533.07 | 2.0673 | 1.4 |- | 1.5 | 111.37 | 1.159 | 0.863 | 467.13 | 111.57 | 2693.36 | 643.3 | 2226.23 | 531.73 | 2.0768 | 1.5 |- | 1.6 | 113.32 | 1.091 | 0.916 | 475.38 | 113.54 | 2696.25 | 643.99 | 2220.87 | 530.45 | 2.086 | 1.6 |- | 1.7 | 115.17 | 1.031 | 0.97 | 483.22 | 115.42 | 2698.97 | 644.64 | 2215.75 | 529.22 | 2.095 | 1.7 |- | 1.8 | 116.93 | 0.977 | 1.023 | 490.7 | 117.2 | 2701.54 | 645.25 | 2210.84 | 528.05 | 2.1037 | 1.8 |- | 1.9 | 118.62 | 0.929 | 1.076 | 497.85 | 118.91 | 2703.98 | 645.83 | 2206.13 | 526.92 | 2.1124 | 1.9 |- | 2 | 120.23 | 0.885 | 1.129 | 504.71 | 120.55 | 2706.29 | 646.39 | 2201.59 | 525.84 | 2.1208 | 2 |- | 2.2 | 123.27 | 0.81 | 1.235 | 517.63 | 123.63 | 2710.6 | 647.42 | 2192.98 | 523.78 | 2.1372 | 2.2 |- | 2.4 | 126.09 | 0.746 | 1.34 | 529.64 | 126.5 | 2714.55 | 648.36 | 2184.91 | 521.86 | 2.1531 | 2.4 |- | 2.6 | 128.73 | 0.693 | 1.444 | 540.88 | 129.19 | 2718.17 | 649.22 | 2177.3 | 520.04 | 2.1685 | 2.6 |- | 2.8 | 131.2 | 0.646 | 1.548 | 551.45 | 131.71 | 2721.54 | 650.03 | 2170.08 | 518.32 | 2.1835 | 2.8 |- | 3 | 133.54 | 0.606 | 1.651 | 561.44 | 134.1 | 2724.66 | 650.77 | 2163.22 | 516.68 | 2.1981 | 3 |- | 3.5 | 138.87 | 0.524 | 1.908 | 584.28 | 139.55 | 2731.63 | 652.44 | 2147.35 | 512.89 | 2.2331 | 3.5 |- | 4 | 143.63 | 0.462 | 2.163 | 604.68 | 144.43 | 2737.63 | 653.87 | 2132.95 | 509.45 | 2.2664 | 4 |- | 4.5 | 147.92 | 0.414 | 2.417 | 623.17 | 148.84 | 2742.88 | 655.13 | 2119.71 | 506.29 | 2.2983 | 4.5 |- | 5 | 151.85 | 0.375 | 2.669 | 640.12 | 152.89 | 2747.54 | 656.24 | 2107.42 | 503.35 | 2.3289 | 5 |- | 5.5 | 155.47 | 0.342 | 2.92 | 655.81 | 156.64 | 2751.7 | 657.23 | 2095.9 | 500.6 | 2.3585 | 5.5 |- | 6 | 158.84 | 0.315 | 3.17 | 670.43 | 160.13 | 2755.46 | 658.13 | 2085.03 | 498 | 2.3873 | 6 |- | 6.5 | 161.99 | 0.292 | 3.419 | 684.14 | 163.4 | 2758.87 | 658.94 | 2074.73 | 495.54 | 2.4152 | 6.5 |- | 7 | 164.96 | 0.273 | 3.667 | 697.07 | 166.49 | 2761.98 | 659.69 | 2064.92 | 493.2 | 2.4424 | 7 |- | 7.5 | 167.76 | 0.255 | 3.915 | 709.3 | 169.41 | 2764.84 | 660.37 | 2055.53 | 490.96 | 2.469 | 7.5 |- | 8 | 170.42 | 0.24 | 4.162 | 720.94 | 172.19 | 2767.46 | 661 | 2046.53 | 488.8 | 2.4951 | 8 |- | 8.5 | 172.94 | 0.227 | 4.409 | 732.03 | 174.84 | 2769.89 | 661.58 | 2037.86 | 486.73 | 2.5206 | 8.5 |- | 9 | 175.36 | 0.215 | 4.655 | 742.64 | 177.38 | 2772.13 | 662.11 | 2029.49 | 484.74 | 2.5456 | 9 |- | 9.5 | 177.67 | 0.204 | 4.901 | 752.82 | 179.81 | 2774.22 | 662.61 | 2021.4 | 482.8 | 2.5702 | 9.5 |- | 10 | 179.88 | 0.194 | 5.147 | 762.6 | 182.14 | 2776.16 | 663.07 | 2013.56 | 480.93 | 2.5944 | 10 |- | 11 | 184.06 | 0.177 | 5.638 | 781.11 | 186.57 | 2779.66 | 663.91 | 1998.55 | 477.35 | 2.6418 | 11 |- | 12 | 187.96 | 0.163 | 6.127 | 798.42 | 190.7 | 2782.73 | 664.64 | 1984.31 | 473.94 | 2.6878 | 12 |- | 13 | 191.6 | 0.151 | 6.617 | 814.68 | 194.58 | 2785.42 | 665.29 | 1970.73 | 470.7 | 2.7327 | 13 |- | 14 | 195.04 | 0.141 | 7.106 | 830.05 | 198.26 | 2787.79 | 665.85 | 1957.73 | 467.6 | 2.7767 | 14 |- | 15 | 198.28 | 0.132 | 7.596 | 844.64 | 201.74 | 2789.88 | 666.35 | 1945.24 | 464.61 | 2.8197 | 15 |- | 16 | 201.37 | 0.124 | 8.085 | 858.54 | 205.06 | 2791.73 | 666.79 | 1933.19 | 461.74 | 2.862 | 16 |- | 17 | 204.3 | 0.117 | 8.575 | 871.82 | 208.23 | 2793.37 | 667.18 | 1921.55 | 458.95 | 2.9036 | 17 |- | 18 | 207.11 | 0.11 | 9.065 | 884.55 | 211.27 | 2794.81 | 667.53 | 1910.27 | 456.26 | 2.9445 | 18 |- | 19 | 209.79 | 0.105 | 9.556 | 896.78 | 214.19 | 2796.09 | 667.83 | 1899.31 | 453.64 | 2.9849 | 19 |- | 20 | 212.37 | 0.1 | 10.047 | 908.56 | 217.01 | 2797.21 | 668.1 | 1888.65 | 451.1 | 3.0248 | 20 |- | 21 | 214.85 | 0.095 | 10.539 | 919.93 | 219.72 | 2798.18 | 668.33 | 1878.25 | 448.61 | 3.0643 | 21 |- | 22 | 217.24 | 0.091 | 11.032 | 930.92 | 222.35 | 2799.03 | 668.54 | 1868.11 | 446.19 | 3.1034 | 22 |- | 23 | 219.55 | 0.087 | 11.525 | 941.57 | 224.89 | 2799.77 | 668.71 | 1858.2 | 443.82 | 3.1421 | 23 |- | 24 | 221.78 | 0.083 | 12.02 | 951.9 | 227.36 | 2800.39 | 668.86 | 1848.49 | 441.5 | 3.1805 | 24 |- | 25 | 223.94 | 0.08 | 12.515 | 961.93 | 229.75 | 2800.91 | 668.99 | 1838.98 | 439.23 | 3.2187 | 25 |- | 26 | 226.03 | 0.077 | 13.012 | 971.69 | 232.08 | 2801.35 | 669.09 | 1829.66 | 437.01 | 3.2567 | 26 |- | 27 | 228.06 | 0.074 | 13.509 | 981.19 | 234.35 | 2801.69 | 669.17 | 1820.5 | 434.82 | 3.2944 | 27 |- | 28 | 230.04 | 0.071 | 14.008 | 990.46 | 236.57 | 2801.96 | 669.24 | 1811.5 | 432.67 | 3.332 | 28 |- | 29 | 231.96 | 0.069 | 14.508 | 999.5 | 238.73 | 2802.15 | 669.28 | 1802.65 | 430.56 | 3.3695 | 29 |- | 30 | 233.84 | 0.067 | 15.009 | 1008.33 | 240.84 | 2802.27 | 669.31 | 1793.94 | 428.48 | 3.4069 | 30 |} <ref>Olivier Cleynen, Engineering Thermodynamics, 2025. ISBN 9781446710067, thermodynamicsbook.com</ref> <ref>The Engineering ToolBox (2003). Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Steam: Data & Charts in Bar. [online] Available at: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/saturated-steam-properties-d_457.html 2025-09-30.</ref> <references /> {{BookCat}} mr5aohirqejkr5eeb69sbu8yxzs1n6j 2822142 2822140 2026-08-14T22:58:42Z IanVG 2918363 2822142 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Saturated steam properties as a function of absolute pressure ! rowspan="2" | Absolute pressure<br />(bar) ! rowspan="2" | Vaporization point<br />(°C) ! rowspan="2" | Specific volume of steam<br />(m³/kg) ! rowspan="2" | Density of steam<br />(kg/m³) ! colspan="2" | Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid water ! colspan="2" | Specific enthalpy of saturated steam ! colspan="2" | Latent heat of vaporization ! rowspan="2" | Specific heat of saturated steam<br />(kJ/(kg·K)) ! rowspan="2" | Absolute pressure<br />(bar) |- ! (kJ/kg) ! (kcal/kg) ! (kJ/kg) ! (kcal/kg) ! (kJ/kg) ! (kcal/kg) |- | 0.02 || 17.49 || 66.987 || 0.015 || 73.43 || 17.54 || 2532.88 || 604.97 || 2459.45 || 587.43 || 1.9030 || 0.02 |- | 0.03 || 24.08 || 45.653 || 0.022 || 100.98 || 24.12 || 2544.84 || 607.82 || 2443.86 || 583.71 || 1.9107 || 0.03 |- | 0.04 || 28.96 || 34.791 || 0.029 || 121.39 || 28.99 || 2553.67 || 609.93 || 2432.28 || 580.94 || 1.9167 || 0.04 |- | 0.05 || 32.87 || 28.185 || 0.035 || 137.75 || 32.90 || 2560.73 || 611.62 || 2422.98 || 578.72 || 1.9217 || 0.05 |- | 0.06 || 36.16 || 23.733 || 0.042 || 151.48 || 36.18 || 2566.63 || 613.03 || 2415.15 || 576.85 || 1.9261 || 0.06 |- | 0.07 || 39.00 || 20.524 || 0.049 || 163.35 || 39.02 || 2571.72 || 614.24 || 2408.37 || 575.23 || 1.9300 || 0.07 |- | 0.08 || 41.51 || 18.099 || 0.055 || 173.84 || 41.52 || 2576.21 || 615.32 || 2402.37 || 573.80 || 1.9336 || 0.08 |- | 0.09 || 43.76 || 16.199 || 0.062 || 183.25 || 43.77 || 2580.22 || 616.28 || 2396.97 || 572.51 || 1.9369 || 0.09 |- | 0.1 || 45.81 || 14.670 || 0.068 || 191.81 || 45.81 || 2583.86 || 617.14 || 2392.05 || 571.33 || 1.9400 || 0.1 |- | 0.2 || 60.06 || 7.648 || 0.131 || 251.42 || 60.05 || 2608.94 || 623.13 || 2357.51 || 563.08 || 1.9649 || 0.2 |- | 0.3 || 69.10 || 5.228 || 0.191 || 289.27 || 69.09 || 2624.55 || 626.86 || 2335.27 || 557.77 || 1.9841 || 0.3 |- | 0.4 || 75.86 || 3.993 || 0.250 || 317.62 || 75.86 || 2636.05 || 629.61 || 2318.43 || 553.75 || 2.0007 || 0.4 |- | 0.5 || 81.32 || 3.240 || 0.309 || 340.54 || 81.34 || 2645.22 || 631.80 || 2304.67 || 550.46 || 2.0157 || 0.5 |- | 0.6 || 85.93 || 2.732 || 0.366 || 359.91 || 85.96 || 2652.86 || 633.62 || 2292.95 || 547.66 || 2.0296 || 0.6 |- | 0.7 || 89.93 || 2.365 || 0.423 || 376.75 || 89.99 || 2659.42 || 635.19 || 2282.67 || 545.21 || 2.0427 || 0.7 |- | 0.8 || 93.49 || 2.087 || 0.479 || 391.71 || 93.56 || 2665.18 || 636.57 || 2273.47 || 543.01 || 2.0551 || 0.8 |- | 0.9 || 96.69 || 1.869 || 0.535 || 405.20 || 96.78 || 2670.31 || 637.79 || 2265.12 || 541.01 || 2.0670 || 0.9 |- | 1 || 99.61 || 1.694 || 0.590 || 417.50 || 99.72 || 2674.95 || 638.90 || 2257.44 || 539.18 || 2.0784 || 1 |- | 1.1 || 102.29 || 1.549 || 0.645 || 428.84 || 102.43 || 2679.17 || 639.91 || 2250.33 || 537.48 || 2.0895 || 1.1 |- | 1.2 || 104.78 || 1.428 || 0.700 || 439.36 || 104.94 || 2683.05 || 640.84 || 2243.69 || 535.90 || 2.1003 || 1.2 |- | 1.3 || 107.11 || 1.325 || 0.755 || 449.19 || 107.29 || 2686.64 || 641.69 || 2237.46 || 534.41 || 2.1107 || 1.3 |- | 1.4 || 109.29 || 1.237 || 0.809 || 458.42 || 109.49 || 2689.98 || 642.49 || 2231.57 || 533.00 || 2.1210 || 1.4 |- | 1.5 || 111.35 || 1.159 || 0.863 || 467.13 || 111.57 || 2693.11 || 643.24 || 2225.98 || 531.67 || 2.1310 || 1.5 |- | 1.6 || 113.30 || 1.091 || 0.916 || 475.38 || 113.54 || 2696.04 || 643.94 || 2220.66 || 530.40 || 2.1407 || 1.6 |- | 1.7 || 115.15 || 1.031 || 0.970 || 483.22 || 115.42 || 2698.80 || 644.60 || 2215.58 || 529.18 || 2.1503 || 1.7 |- | 1.8 || 116.91 || 0.977 || 1.023 || 490.70 || 117.20 || 2701.41 || 645.22 || 2210.71 || 528.02 || 2.1598 || 1.8 |- | 1.9 || 118.60 || 0.929 || 1.076 || 497.85 || 118.91 || 2703.88 || 645.81 || 2206.03 || 526.90 || 2.1690 || 1.9 |- | 2 || 120.21 || 0.886 || 1.129 || 504.70 || 120.55 || 2706.23 || 646.37 || 2201.53 || 525.83 || 2.1782 || 2 |- | 2.2 || 123.25 || 0.810 || 1.234 || 517.63 || 123.63 || 2710.61 || 647.42 || 2192.98 || 523.78 || 2.1960 || 2.2 |- | 2.4 || 126.07 || 0.747 || 1.339 || 529.64 || 126.50 || 2714.61 || 648.37 || 2184.97 || 521.87 || 2.2134 || 2.4 |- | 2.6 || 128.71 || 0.693 || 1.444 || 540.87 || 129.19 || 2718.30 || 649.25 || 2177.42 || 520.07 || 2.2303 || 2.6 |- | 2.8 || 131.19 || 0.646 || 1.547 || 551.44 || 131.71 || 2721.71 || 650.07 || 2170.27 || 518.36 || 2.2469 || 2.8 |- | 3 || 133.52 || 0.606 || 1.651 || 561.43 || 134.09 || 2724.88 || 650.83 || 2163.46 || 516.73 || 2.2630 || 3 |- | 3.5 || 138.86 || 0.524 || 1.908 || 584.26 || 139.55 || 2731.96 || 652.52 || 2147.70 || 512.97 || 2.3022 || 3.5 |- | 4 || 143.61 || 0.462 || 2.163 || 604.65 || 144.42 || 2738.05 || 653.97 || 2133.40 || 509.55 || 2.3396 || 4 |- | 4.5 || 147.90 || 0.414 || 2.416 || 623.14 || 148.83 || 2743.39 || 655.25 || 2120.25 || 506.41 || 2.3756 || 4.5 |- | 5 || 151.83 || 0.375 || 2.668 || 640.09 || 152.88 || 2748.11 || 656.37 || 2108.02 || 503.49 || 2.4103 || 5 |- | 5.5 || 155.46 || 0.343 || 2.919 || 655.76 || 156.63 || 2752.33 || 657.38 || 2096.57 || 500.76 || 2.4439 || 5.5 |- | 6 || 158.83 || 0.316 || 3.169 || 670.38 || 160.12 || 2756.14 || 658.29 || 2085.77 || 498.18 || 2.4766 || 6 |- | 6.5 || 161.98 || 0.293 || 3.418 || 684.08 || 163.39 || 2759.60 || 659.12 || 2075.52 || 495.73 || 2.5083 || 6.5 |- | 7 || 164.95 || 0.273 || 3.666 || 697.00 || 166.48 || 2762.75 || 659.87 || 2065.75 || 493.40 || 2.5393 || 7 |- | 7.5 || 167.75 || 0.256 || 3.914 || 709.24 || 169.40 || 2765.64 || 660.56 || 2056.41 || 491.16 || 2.5695 || 7.5 |- | 8 || 170.41 || 0.240 || 4.161 || 720.86 || 172.18 || 2768.30 || 661.20 || 2047.44 || 489.02 || 2.5990 || 8 |- | 8.5 || 172.94 || 0.227 || 4.407 || 731.95 || 174.82 || 2770.76 || 661.78 || 2038.81 || 486.96 || 2.6279 || 8.5 |- | 9 || 175.35 || 0.215 || 4.654 || 742.56 || 177.36 || 2773.03 || 662.33 || 2030.47 || 484.97 || 2.6563 || 9 |- | 9.5 || 177.66 || 0.204 || 4.899 || 752.74 || 179.79 || 2775.14 || 662.83 || 2022.41 || 483.04 || 2.6841 || 9.5 |- | 10 || 179.88 || 0.194 || 5.145 || 762.52 || 182.12 || 2777.11 || 663.30 || 2014.59 || 481.18 || 2.7114 || 10 |- | 11 || 184.06 || 0.177 || 5.635 || 781.03 || 186.55 || 2780.65 || 664.15 || 1999.62 || 477.60 || 2.7647 || 11 |- | 12 || 187.96 || 0.163 || 6.125 || 798.33 || 190.68 || 2783.74 || 664.89 || 1985.41 || 474.21 || 2.8163 || 12 |- | 13 || 191.60 || 0.151 || 6.614 || 814.60 || 194.56 || 2786.46 || 665.53 || 1971.86 || 470.97 || 2.8666 || 13 |- | 14 || 195.04 || 0.141 || 7.103 || 829.97 || 198.23 || 2788.85 || 666.10 || 1958.88 || 467.87 || 2.9157 || 14 |- | 15 || 198.29 || 0.132 || 7.592 || 844.56 || 201.72 || 2790.96 || 666.61 || 1946.40 || 464.89 || 2.9636 || 15 |- | 16 || 201.37 || 0.124 || 8.081 || 858.46 || 205.04 || 2792.82 || 667.05 || 1934.36 || 462.01 || 3.0106 || 16 |- | 17 || 204.31 || 0.117 || 8.571 || 871.74 || 208.21 || 2794.46 || 667.45 || 1922.72 || 459.23 || 3.0568 || 17 |- | 18 || 207.11 || 0.110 || 9.061 || 884.47 || 211.25 || 2795.91 || 667.79 || 1911.43 || 456.54 || 3.1022 || 18 |- | 19 || 209.80 || 0.105 || 9.551 || 896.71 || 214.18 || 2797.18 || 668.09 || 1900.47 || 453.92 || 3.1469 || 19 |- | 20 || 212.38 || 0.100 || 10.042 || 908.50 || 216.99 || 2798.29 || 668.36 || 1889.79 || 451.37 || 3.1910 || 20 |- | 21 || 214.86 || 0.095 || 10.533 || 919.87 || 219.71 || 2799.26 || 668.59 || 1879.39 || 448.88 || 3.2347 || 21 |- | 22 || 217.25 || 0.091 || 11.026 || 930.87 || 222.34 || 2800.10 || 668.79 || 1869.23 || 446.46 || 3.2778 || 22 |- | 23 || 219.56 || 0.087 || 11.519 || 941.53 || 224.88 || 2800.82 || 668.96 || 1859.29 || 444.08 || 3.3205 || 23 |- | 24 || 221.79 || 0.083 || 12.013 || 951.87 || 227.35 || 2801.43 || 669.11 || 1849.56 || 441.76 || 3.3629 || 24 |- | 25 || 223.95 || 0.080 || 12.508 || 961.91 || 229.75 || 2801.93 || 669.23 || 1840.03 || 439.48 || 3.4050 || 25 |- | 26 || 226.05 || 0.077 || 13.004 || 971.67 || 232.08 || 2802.34 || 669.33 || 1830.67 || 437.25 || 3.4468 || 26 |- | 27 || 228.08 || 0.074 || 13.501 || 981.18 || 234.35 || 2802.66 || 669.40 || 1821.48 || 435.05 || 3.4883 || 27 |- | 28 || 230.06 || 0.071 || 14.000 || 990.46 || 236.57 || 2802.90 || 669.46 || 1812.45 || 432.90 || 3.5297 || 28 |- | 29 || 231.98 || 0.069 || 14.500 || 999.51 || 238.73 || 2803.06 || 669.50 || 1803.56 || 430.77 || 3.5709 || 29 |- | 30 || 233.85 || 0.067 || 15.001 || 1008.34 || 240.84 || 2803.15 || 669.52 || 1794.81 || 428.68 || 3.6119 || 30 |} ''Calculation note:'' Values were generated with [https://coolprop.org/ CoolProp 8.0.0] using the HEOS water model. Pressure is absolute; saturated liquid uses quality Q = 0 and saturated vapor uses Q = 1. kcal values use 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ. <references /> {{BookCat}} sgf0190139pzzi92rfi5y6zhqc00onf 0 324474 2822138 2756829 2026-08-14T22:15:20Z IanVG 2918363 /* Only or mainly thermodynamics */ added textbook 2822138 wikitext text/x-wiki A number of books exist on this topic. Feel free to add useful thermodynamic focused texts below. This list was taken from this [[W: List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics|Wikipedia page]] containing a list of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. == Only or mainly thermodynamics == [[File:Callen-front-2nd-ed.jpg|thumb|Front cover of the second edition of Herbert Callen's text.]] *{{Cite book|title=Thermodynamics|last=Fermi|first=Enrico|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1956|isbn=978-0486603612|edition=New|author-link=W: Enrico Fermi}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oppermann|first=R.H.|date=October 1937|title=Thermodynamics|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001600323790245X|journal=Journal of the Franklin Institute|language=en|volume=224|issue=4|pages=533–534|doi=10.1016/S0016-0032(37)90245-X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> *{{Cite book|title=Understanding Thermodynamics|last=Van Ness|first=H. C.|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1983|isbn=978-0486632773|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingthe00vann}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Ness|first1=H. C.|last2=Moszynski|first2=J. R.|date=1970-12-01|title=Understanding Thermodynamics|url=https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/appliedmechanics/article/37/4/1208/425517/Understanding-Thermodynamics|journal=Journal of Applied Mechanics|language=en|volume=37|issue=4|pages=1208|doi=10.1115/1.3408711|bibcode=1970JAM....37.1208V|issn=0021-8936|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * {{Cite book|url=https://thermodynamicsbook.com/|title=Engineering Thermodynamics|last=Cleynen|first=Olivier|year=2025}} — Free and open-source textbook, licensed under [[wikipedia:Creative Commons license|CC BY-SA 4.0]]. 8m0df4go8yn0nmbyo7mk25m5xf26iel 0 329865 2822162 2812754 2026-08-15T00:11:07Z Scogdill 1331941 /* Things To Add */ 2822162 wikitext text/x-wiki = Late 19th-century Foundation Garments = Foundation structures changed the shape of the body by metal, cane, boning. Men wore corsets as well. * [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corset|Corset]] * [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hoops|Hoops]] * [[Social Victorians/Terminology/Foundation Garments#Padding|Padding]] == Corset == [[File:Corset_-_MET_1972.209.49a,_b.jpg|alt=Photograph of an old silk corset on a mannequin, showing the closure down the front, similar to a button, and channels in the fabric for the boning. It is wider at the top and bottom, creating smooth curves from the bust to the compressed waist to the hips, with a long point below the waist in front.|thumb|French 1890s corset, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NYC]] The understructure of Victorian women's clothing is what makes the costumes worn by the women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] so distinctly Victorian in appearance. An example of a corset that has the kind of structure often worn by fashionably dressed women in 1897 is the one at right. This corset exaggerated the shape of the women's bodies and made possible a bodice that looked and was fitted in the way that is so distinctive of the time — very controlled and smooth. And, as a structural element, this foundation garment carried the weight of all those layers and all that fabric and decoration on the gowns, trains and mantles. (The trains and mantles could be attached directly to the corset itself.) * This foundation emphasizes the waist and the bust in particular, in part because of the contrast between the very small waist and the rounded fullness of the bust and hips. * The idealized waist is defined by its small span and the sexualizing point at the center-bottom of the bodice, which directs the eye downwards. Interestingly, the pointed waistline worn by Elizabethan men has become level in the Victorian age. Highly fashionable Victorian women wearing the traditional style, however, had extremely pointed waists. * The busk (a kind of boning in the front of a corset that is less flexible than the rest) smoothed the bodice, flattened the abdomen and prevented the point on the bodice from curling up. * The sharp definition of the waist was caused by ** length of the corset (especially on the sides) ** the stiffness of the boning ** the layers of fabric ** the lacing (especially if the woman used tightlacing) ** the over-all shape, which was so much wider at the top and the bottom ** the contrast between the waist and the wider top and bottom * The late-19th-century corset was long, ending below the waist even on the sides and back. * The boning and the top edge of the late 19th-century fashion corset pushed up the bust, rounding (rather than flattening, as in earlier styles) the breasts, drawing attention to their exposed curves and creating cleavage. * The exaggerated bust was larger than the hips, whenever possible, an impression reinforced by the A-line of the skirt and the inverted Vs in the decorative trim near the waist and on the skirt. * This corset made the bodice very smooth with a very precise fit, that had no wrinkles, folds or loose drapery. The bodice was also trimmed or decorated, but the base was always a smooth bodice. More formal gowns would still have the fitted bodice and more elaborate trim made from lace, embroidery, appliqué, beading and possibly even jewels. The advantages and disadvantages of corseting and especially tight lacing were the subject of thousands of articles and opinions in the periodical press for a great part of the century, but the fetishistic and politicized tight lacing was practiced by very few women. And no single approach to corsetry was practiced by all women all the time. Most of the women at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 ball]] were not tightly laced, but the progressive style does not dominate either, even though all the costumes are technically historical dress. Part of what gives most of the costumes their distinctive 19th-century "look" is the more traditional corset beneath them. Even though this highly fashionable look was widely present in the historical costumes at the ball, some women's waists were obviously very small and others were hardly '''emphasized''' at all. Women's waists are never mentioned in the newspaper coverage of the ball — or, indeed, of any of the social events attended by the network at the ball — so it is only in photographs that we can see the effects of how they used their corsets. ==== Things To Add ==== [[File:Woman's_Corset_LACMA_M.2007.211.353.jpg|none|thumb|Woman's Corset LACMA M.2007.211.353.jpg]] * Corset as an outer garment, 18th century, in place of a stomacher<ref name=":1110">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|419}} * Corsets could be laced in front or back * Methods for making the holes for the laces and the development of the grommet (in 1828<ref>{{Cite book|title=Corsets and Crinolines|last=Waugh|first=Norah|publisher=Routledge/Theatre Arts Books|year=1954, rpt. 2004|location=New York, New York|pages=79}}</ref>) == Hoops == '''This section is under construction right now'''. Terms: farthingale, panniers, hoops, crinoline, cage, bustle Between 1450 and 1550 a loosely woven, very stiff fabric made from linen and horsehair was used in "horsehair petticoats."<ref name=":7">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|137}} Heavy and scratchy, these petticoats made the fabric of the skirt lie smooth, without wrinkles or folds. Over time, this horsehair fabric was used in several kinds of objects made from fabric, like hats and padding for poufs, but it is best known for its use in the structure of hoops, or cages. Horsehair fabric was used until the mid-19th century, when it was called ''crinoline'' and used in the making petticoats again (1840–1865).<ref name=":7" />{{rp|78}} We still call this fabric ''crinoline''. But in the 19th century, people also used the term ''crinoline'' to mean petticoats. ''Hoops'' is a mid-19th-century term for a cage-like structure worn by a woman to hold her skirts away from her body. The term ''cage'' is also 19th century, and ''crinoline'' is sometimes used in a non-technical way for 19th-century cages as well. Both these terms are commonly used now for the general understructure of a woman's skirts, but they are not technically accurate for time periods before the 19th century. As fashion, that cage-like structure was the foundation undergarment for the bottom half of a woman's body, for a skirt and petticoat, and created the fashionable silhouette from the 15th through the late 19th century. The 16th-century Katherine of Aragon is credited with making hoops popular outside Spain for women of the elite classes. By the end of the 16th century France had become the arbiter of fashion for the western world, and it still is. The cage is notable for how long it lasted in fashion and for its complex evolution. Together with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsets|corset]], the cage enabled all the changes in fashionable shapes, from the extreme distortions of 17th-and-18th-century panniers to the late 19th-century bustle. Early hoops circled the body in a bell, cone or drum shape, then were moved to the sides with panniers, then ballooned around the body like the top half of a sphere, and finally were pulled to the rear as a bustle. That is, the distorted shapes of high fashion were made possible by hoops. High fashion demanded these shapes, which disguised women's bodies, especially below the waist, while corsets did their work above it. When hoops were first introduced in the 15th century, women's shoes for the first time differentiated from men's and became part of the fashionable look. In the periods when the skirts were flat in front (with the farthingale and in the transitional 17th century), they did not touch the floor, making shoes visible — and important fashion accessories. Portraits of high-status, high-fashion women consistently show their pointy-toed shoes, which would have been more likely to show when they were moving than when they were standing still. The shoes seem to draw attention to themselves in these portraits, suggesting that they were important to the painters and, perhaps, the women as well. In addition to the shape, the materials used to make hoops evolved — from cane and wood to whalebone, then steel bands and wire. Initially fabric strips, tabs or ribbons were the vertical elements in the cages and evolved into channels in a linen, muslin or, later, crinoline underskirt encasing wires or bands. Fabrics besides crinoline — like cotton, silk and linen — were used to connect the hoops and bands in cages. All of these materials used in cages had disadvantages and advantages. === Disadvantages and Advantages === Hoops affected the way women were able to move. ['''something about riding'''?] ==== Disadvantages ==== the weight, getting through doorways, sitting, the wind, getting into carriages, what the dances involved. Raising '''one's'''skirts to climb stairs or walk was more difficult with hoop. ['''Contextualize with dates?'''] "The combination of corset, bustle, and crinolette limited a woman's ability to bend except at the hip joint, resulting in a decorous, if rigid, sense of bearing."<ref>Koda, Harold. ''Extreme Beauty: The Body Transformed.'' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001.</ref> (130) As caricatures through the centuries makes clear, one disadvantage hoops had is that they could be caught by the wind, no matter what the structure was made of or how heavy it was. In her 1941 ''Little Town on the Prairie'', Laura Ingalls Wilder writes a scene in which Laura's hoops have crept up under skirts because of the wind. Set in 1883,<ref>Hill, Pamela Smith, ed. ''Pioneer Girl: The Annotated Autobiography''.</ref> this very unusual scene shows a young woman highly skilled at getting her hoops back down without letting her undergarments show. The majority of European and North American women wore hoops in 1883, but to our knowledge no other writer from this time describes any solution to the problem of the wind under hoops or, indeed, a skill like Laura's. <blockquote>“Well,” Laura began; then she stopped and spun round and round, for the strong wind blowing against her always made the wires of her hoop skirt creep slowly upward under her skirts until they bunched around her knees. Then she must whirl around and around until the wires shook loose and spiraled down to the bottom of her skirts where they should be. “As she and Carrie hurried on she began again. “I think it was silly, the way they dressed when Ma was a girl, don’t you? Drat this wind!” she exclaimed as the hoops began creeping upward again. “Quietly Carrie stood by while Laura whirled. “I’m glad I’m not old enough to have to wear hoops,” she said. “They’d make me dizzy.” “They are rather a nuisance,” Laura admitted. “But they are stylish, and when you’re my age you’ll want to be in style.”<ref>Wilder, Laura Ingalls. ''Little Town on the Prairie.'' Harper and Row, 1941. Pp. 272–273.</ref></blockquote>The 16-year-old Laura makes the comment that she wants to be in style, but she lives on the prairie in the U.S., far from a large city, and would not necessarily wear the latest Parisian style, although she reads the American women's domestic and fashion monthly ''[[Social Victorians/Newspapers#Godey's Lady's Book|Godey's Lady's Book]]'' and would know what was stylish. ==== '''Advantages''' ==== The '''weight''' of hoops was somewhat corrected over time with the use of steel bands and wires, as they were lighter than the wood, cane or whalebone hoops, which had to be thick enough to keep their shape and to keep from breaking or folding under the weight of the petticoats and skirts. Full skirts made women's waists look smaller, whether by petticoats or hoops. Being fashionable, being included among the smart set. The hoops moved the skirts away from the legs and feet, making moving easier. By moving the heavy petticoats and skirts away from their legs, hoops could actually give women's legs and feet more freedom to move. Because so few fully constructed hoop foundation garments still exist, we cannot be certain of a number of details about how exactly they were worn. For example, the few contemporary drawings of 19th-century hoops show bloomers beneath them but no petticoats. However, in the cold and wind (and we know from Laura Ingalls Wilder how the wind could get under hoops), women could have added layers of petticoats beneath their hoops for warmth. [[File:Chaise_à_crinolines.jpg|thumb|Chaise à Crinolines, 19th century]] === Accommodation === Hoops affected how women sat, and furniture was developed specifically to accommodate these foundation structures. The ''chaise à crinolines'' or chair for hoop skirts (right), dating from the 2nd half of the 19th century, has a gap between the seat and the back of the chair to keep a woman's undergarments from showing as she sat, or even seated herself, and to reduce wrinkling of the fabric by accommodating her hoops, petticoats and skirts. [[File:Vermeer_Lady_Seated_at_a_Virginal.jpg|left|thumb|Vermeer, Lady Seated at a Virginal]] Vermeer's c. 1673 ''Lady Seated at a Virginal'' (left) looks like she is sitting on this same kind of chair, suggesting that furniture like this had existed long before the 19th century. Vermeer's painting shows how the chair could accommodate her hoops and the voluminous fabric of her skirts. The wide doorways between the large public rooms in the Palace of Versailles could accommodate wide panniers. '''Louis XV and XVI of France occupied an already-built Versailles, but they both renovated the inside over time'''. Some configurations of hoops permitted folding, and of course the width of the hoops themselves varied over time and with the evolving styles and materials. With hoops, skirts were lifted away from the legs and feet, and when skirts got shorter, to above the floor, women's feet had nearly unrestricted freedom to move. Evening gowns, with trains, were still restrictive. A modern accommodation are the leaning boards developed in Hollywood for women wearing period garments like corsets and long, full skirts. The leaning boards allow the actors to rest without sitting and wrinkling their clothes. [[File:Pedro_García_de_Benabarre_St_John_Retable_Detail.jpg|alt=Old oil painting of a woman wearing a dress from the 1400s holding the decapitated head of a man with a halo before a table of people at a dinner party|thumb|Pedro García de Benabarre, Detail from St. John Altarpiece, Showing Visible Hoops]] === Early Hoops === Hoops first appeared in Spain in the 15th century and influenced European fashion for at least 3 centuries. A detail (right) from Pedro García de Benabarre's c. 1470 larger altarpiece painting shows women wearing a style of hoops that predates the farthingale but marks the beginning point of the development of that fashion. Salomé (holding John the Baptist's head) is wearing a dress with what looks like visible wooden hoops attached to the outside of the skirt, which also appears to have padding at the hips underneath it. The clothing and hairstyles of the people in this painting are sufficiently realistic to offer details for analysis. The foundation garments the women are wearing are corsets and bum rolls. Because none still exist, we do not know how these hoops attached to the skirts or how they related structurally to the corset. The bottom hoop on Salomé's skirt rests on the ground, and her feet are covered. The women near her are kneeling, so not all their hoops show. The painter De Benabarre was "active in Aragon and in Catalonia, between 1445–1496,"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mfab.hu/artworks/10528/|title=Saint Peter|website=Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest|language=en-US|access-date=2024-12-11}} https://www.mfab.hu/artworks/10528/.</ref> so perhaps he saw the styles worn by people like Katharine of Aragon, whose hoops are now called a farthingale. === Early Farthingale === In the 16th century, the foundation garment we call ''hoops'' was called a ''farthingale''. Elizabeth Lewandowski says that the metal supports (or structure) in the hoops were made of wire:<blockquote>''"FARTHINGALE: Renaissance (1450-1550 C.E. to Elizabethan (1550-1625 C.E.). Linen underskirt with wire supports which, when shaped, produced a variety of dome, bell, and oblong shapes."<ref name=":72">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>''{{rp|105}}</blockquote>The French term for ''farthingale'' is ''vertugadin'' — "un élément essentiel de la mode Tudor en Angleterre [an essential element of Tudor fashion in England]."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-12|title=Vertugadin|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vertugadin&oldid=191825729|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}} https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertugadin.</ref> The French also called the farthingale a "''cachenfant'' for its perceived ability to hide pregnancy,"<ref>"Clothes on the Shakespearean Stage." Carleton Production. Amazon Web Services. https://carleton-wp-production.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/sites/84/2023/05/Clothes-on-the-Shakespearean-Stage_-1.pdf (retrieved April 2025).</ref> not unreasonable given the number of portraits where the subject wearing a farthingale looks as if she might be pregnant. The term in Spanish is ''vertugado''. Nowadays clothing historians make clear distinctions among these terms, especially farthingale, bustle and hip roll, but the terminology then did not need to distinguish these garments from later ones. The hoops on the outsides of the skirts in the Pedro García de Benabarre painting (above right) predate what would technically be considered a vertugado. [[File:Alonso_Sánchez_Coello_011.jpg|alt=Old painting of a princess wearing a richly jeweled outfit|thumb|Alonso Sánchez Coello, Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia Wearing a Vertugado, c. 1584]] Blanche Payne says,<blockquote>Katherine of Aragon is reputed to have introduced the Spanish farthingale ... into England early in the [16th] century. The result was to convert the columnar skirt of the fifteenth century into the cone shape of the sixteenth.<ref name=":11">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|291}}</blockquote>In fact, "The Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon brought the fashion to England for her marriage to Prince Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII in 1501 [La princesse espagnole Catherine d'Aragon amena la mode en Angleterre pour son mariage avec le prince Arthur, fils aîné d'Henri VII en 1501]."<ref name=":0" /> Catherine of Aragon, of course, married Henry VIII after Arthur's death, then was divorced and replaced by Anne Boleyn. Of England, Lewandowski says that "Spanish influence had introduced the hoop-supported skirt, smooth in contour, which was quite generally worn."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|291}} That is, hoops were "quite generally worn" among the ruling and aristocratic classes in England, and may have been worn by some women among the wealthy bourgeoisie. Sumptuary laws addressed "certain features of garments that are decorative in function, intended to enhance the silhouette"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-22|title=Sumptuary law|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumptuary_law|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> and signified wealth and status, but they were generally not very successful and not enforced well or consistently. (Sumptuary laws "attempted to regulate permitted consumption, especially of clothing, food and luxury expenditures"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-09-27|title=sumptuary law|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sumptuary_law|journal=Wiktionary, the free dictionary|language=en}}</ref> in order to mark class differences and, for our purposes, to use fashion to control women and the burgeoning middle class.) The Spanish vertugado shaped the skirt into an symmetrical A-line with a graduated series of hoops sewn to an undergarment. Alonso Sánchez Coello's c. 1584<ref name=":11" />{{rp|316}} portrait (right) shows infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia wearing a vertugado, with its "typically Spanish smooth cone-shaped contour."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|315–316}} The shoes do not show in the portraits of women wearing the Spanish cone-shaped vertugado. The round hoops stayed in place in front, even though the skirts might touch the floor, giving the women's feet enough room to take steps. By the end of the 16th century the French and Spanish farthingales had evolved separately and were no longer the same garment. [[File:Queen_Elizabeth_I_('The_Ditchley_portrait')_by_Marcus_Gheeraerts_the_YoungerFXD.jpg|alt=Old oil painting of a queen in a white dress with shoulders and hips exaggerated by her dress|left|thumb|Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Queen Elizabeth I in a French Cartwheel Farthingale, 1592]] The French vertugadin — a cartwheel farthingale — was a flat "platter" of hoops worn below the waist and above the hips. Once past the vertugadin, the skirt fell straight to the floor, into a kind of asymmetrical drum shape that was balanced by strict symmetry in the rest of the garment. The English Queen Elizabeth I is wearing a French drum-shaped farthingale in Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger's c. 1592 portrait (left). [[File:Hardwick_Hall_Portrait_of_Elizabeth_I_of_England.jpg|thumb|Hilliard, Hardwick Hall Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, c. 1598–1599]] In Nicholas Hilliard's c. 1598–1599 portrait of Queen Elizabeth I (right), an extraordinary showing of jewels, pearls and embroidery from the top of her head to the tips of her toes make for a spectacular outfit. The drum of the cartwheel farthingale is closer to the body beneath the point of the bodice, and the underskirt is gathered up the sides of the foundation corset to where her natural waistline would be. The gathers flatten the petticoat from the point to the hem, and the fabric collected at the sides falls from the edge of the drum down to her ankles. Associated with the cartwheel farthingale was a very long waist and a skirt slightly shorter in the front. A rigid corset with a point far below the waist and the downward-angled farthingale flattened the front of the skirt. Because the skirt in front over a cartwheel farthingale was closer to the woman's body and did not touch the floor, the dress flowed and the women's shoes showed as they moved. Almost all portraits of women wearing cartwheel farthingales show the little pointy toes of their shoes. In Gheeraerts' painting, Queen Elizabeth's feet draw attention to themselves, suggesting that showing the shoes was important. Farthingales were heavy, and together with the rigid corsets and the construction of the dress (neckline, bodice, sleeves, mantle), women's movement was quite restricted. Although their feet and legs had the freedom to move under the hoops, their upper bodies were held in place by their foundation garments and their clothing, the sleeves preventing them from raising their arms higher than their shoulders. This restriction of the movement of their arms can be seen in Elizabethan court dances that included clapping. They clapped their hands beside their heads rather than over their heads. The steady attempts in the sumptuary laws to control fine materials for clothing reveals the interest middle-class women had in wearing what the cultural elite were wearing at court. === The Transitional 17th Century === What had been starched and stiff in women's dress in the 16th century — like ruffs and collars — became looser and flatter in the 17th. This transitional period in women's clothing also introduced the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Cavalier|Cavalier style of men's dress]], which began with the political movement in support of England's King Charles II while he was still living in France. Like the ones women wore, men's ruffs and collars were also no longer starched or wired, making them looser and flatter as well. For much of the 17th century — beginning about 1620, according to Payne — skirts were not supported by the cage-like hoops that had been so popular.<ref name=":112">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|355}} Without structures like hoops, skirts draped loosely to the floor, but they did not fall straight from the waist. Except for dressing gowns (which sometimes appear in portraiture in spite of their informality), the skirts women wore were held away from the body by some kind of padding or stiffened roll around the waist and at the hips, sometimes flat in front, sometimes not. The skirts flowed from the hips, either straight down or in an A-line depending on the cut of the skirt. [[File:The_Vanity_of_Women_Masks_and_Bustles_MET_DT4982.jpg|thumb|Maerten de Vos, ''The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles'', c. 1600]] ==== Hip Rolls ==== This c. 1600 Dutch engraving attributed to Maerten de Vos (right) shows two servants dressing two wealthy women in masks and hip rolls. In its title of this engraving the Metropolitan Museum of Art calls a hip roll a ''bustle'' (which it defines as a padded roll or a French farthingale),<ref>De Vos, Maerten. "The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles." Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Vanity_of_Women_Masks_and_Bustles_MET_DT4982.jpg.</ref> but the engraving itself calls it a ''cachenfant''.<ref name=":20">De Vos, Maerten (attrib. to). "The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles." Circa 1600. ''The Costume Institute: The Metropolitan Museum of Art''. Object Number: 2001.341.1. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/82615</ref> The craftsmen in the back are wearing masks. The one on the left is making the masks that the shop sells, and the one on the right is making the hip rolls. The serving woman on the left is fitting a mask on what is probably her mistress. The kneeling woman on the right is tying a hip roll on what is probably hers. The text around the engraving is in French and Dutch. The French passages read as follows (clockwise from top left), with the word ''cachenfant'' (farthingale) bolded:<blockquote>Orne moy auecq la masque laide orde et sale: Car laideur est en moy la beaute principale. Achepte dame masques & passement: Monstre vostre pauvre [?] orgueil hardiment. Venez belles filles auecq fesses maigres: Bien tost les ferayie rondes & alaigres. Vn '''cachenfant''' come les autres me fault porter: Couste qu'il couste; le fol la folle veult aymer. Voy cy la boutiquel des enragez amours, De vanite, & d'orgueil & d'autres tels tours: D'ont plusieurs qui parent la chair puante, S'en vont auecq les diables en la gehenne ardante. <ref name=":202">De Vos, Maerten (attrib. to). "The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles." Circa 1600. ''The Costume Institute: The Metropolitan Museum of Art''. Object Number: 2001.341.1. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/82615</ref></blockquote>Which translates, roughly, into<blockquote>Adorn me with the ugly, dirty, and orderly mask: For ugliness is the principal beauty in me. Buy, lady, masks and trimmings: Boldly show your poor [?] pride. Come, beautiful girls with thin buttocks: Soon, make them round and cheerful. I must wear a [farthingale, lit. "hide child"] like the others: No matter how much it costs; the madman wants to love. See here the store of rabid loves, Of vanity, and pride, and other such tricks: Many of whom adorn the stinking flesh, Go with the devils to the burning hell.</blockquote>Later versions of hoops were also used to hide or at least de-emphasize pregnancy (see [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinoline Hoops|Crinoline Hoops]], below). [[File:The_Vanity_of_Women_Masks_and_Bustles_MET_DT4982_(detail_of_padded_rolls_or_French_farthingales).jpg|thumb|Detail of Maerten de Vos, ''The Vanity of Women: Masks and Bustles'', c. 1600]] Traditionally thought of as padding, the hip rolls, at least in this detail of the c. 1600 engraving (right), are hollow and seem to be made cylindrical by what looks like rings of cane or wire sewn into channels. The kneeling woman is tying the strings that attach the hip roll, which is being worn above the petticoat and below the overskirt that the mistress is holding up and back. The hip roll under construction on the table looks hollow, but when they are finished the rolls look padded and their ends sewn closed. Farthingales were more complex than is usually assumed. Currently, ''farthingale'' usually refers to the cane or wire foundation that shaped the skirt from about 1450 to 1625, although the term was not always used so precisely. Padding was sometimes used to shape the skirt, either by itself or in addition to the cartwheel and cone-shaped foundational structures. The padding itself was in fact another version of hoops that were structured both by rings as well as padding. Called a bustle, French farthingale, cachenfant, bum barrel<ref name=":73">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|42}} or even (quoting Ben Jonson, 1601) bum roll<ref>Cunnington, C. Willett (Cecil Willett), and Phillis Cunnington. ''Handbook of English Costume in the Sixteenth Century''. Faber and Faber, 1954. Internet Archive https://archive.org/details/handbookofenglis0000unse_e2n2/.</ref>{{rp|161}} in its day, the hip roll still does not have a stable name. The common terms for what we call the hip roll now include ''bum roll'' and ''French farthingale''. The term ''bustle'' is no longer associated with the farthingale. ==== Bunched Skirts or Padding ==== The speed with which trends in clothing changed began to accelerate in the 17th century, making fashion more expensive and making keeping up with the latest styles more difficult. Part of the transition in this century, then, is the number of silhouettes possible for women, including early forms of what became the pannier in the 18th century and what became the bustle in the late 19th. In the later periods, these forms of hoops involved "baskets" or cages (or crinolines), but during this transitional period, these shapes were made from "stiffened rolls [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hip Rolls|hip rolls]]] that were tied around the waist"<ref>Bendall, Sarah A. () The Case of the “French Vardinggale”: A Methodological Approach to Reconstructing and Understanding Ephemeral Garments, ''Fashion Theory'' 2019 (23:3), pp. 363-399, DOI: [[doi:10.1080/1362704X.2019.1603862|10.1080/1362704X.2019.1603862]].</ref>{{rp|369}} at the hips under the skirts or from bunched fabric, or both. The fabric-based volume in the back involved the evolution of an overskirt, showing more and more of the underskirt, or [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Petticoat|petticoat]], beneath it. This development transformed the petticoat into an outer garment. [[File:Princess_Teresa_Pamphilj_Cybo,_by_Jacob_Ferdinand_Voet.jpg|thumb|Attr. to Voet, Anna Pamphili, c. 1670]] [[File:Caspar_Netscher_-_Girl_Standing_before_a_Mirror_-_1925.718_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg|left|thumb|Netscher, Girl Standing before a Mirror]] Two examples of the bunched overskirt can be seen in Caspar Netscher's ''Girl Standing before a Mirror'' (left) and Voet's ''Portrait of Anna Pamphili'' (right), both painted about 1670. (This portrait of Anna Pamphili and the one below right were both misidentified with her mother Olimpia Aldobrandini.) In both these portraits, the overskirt is split down the center front, pulled to the sides and toward the back and stitched (probably) to keep the fabric from falling flat. The petticoat, which is now an outer garment, hangs straight to the floor. In Netscher's portrait, the girl's shoe shows, but the skirt rests on the ground, requiring her to lift her skirts to be able to walk, not to mention dancing. The dress in Anna Pamphili's portrait is an interesting contrast of soft and hard. The embroidery stiffens the narrow petticoat, suggesting it might have been a good choice for a static portrait but not for moving or dancing. Besides bunched fabric, the other way to make the skirts full at the hips was with hip rolls. Mierevelt's 1629 Portrait of Elizabeth Stuart (below, left) shows a split overskirt, although the fabric is not bunched or draped toward the back. The fullness here is caused by a hip roll, which adds fullness to the hips and back, leaving the skirts flat in front. In this case the flatness of the roll in front pulls the overskirt slightly apart and reveals the petticoat, even this early in the century. One reason this portrait is striking because Elizabeth Stuart appears to be wearing a mourning band on her left arm. Also striking are the very elaborate trim and decorations, displaying Stuart's wealth and status, including the large ornament on the mourning band. [[File:Michiel_van_Mierevelt_-_Portrait_of_Elizabeth_Stuart_(1596-1662),_circa_1629.jpg|left|thumb|Michiel van Mierevelt, Elizabeth Stuart, c. 1629]] [[File:Attributed_to_Voet_-_Portrait_of_Anna_Pamphili,_misidentified_with_her_mother_Olimpia_Aldobrandini.jpg|thumb|Attr. to Voet, Anna Pamphili, c. 1671]] The c. 1671 portrait of Anna Pamphili (below, right) shows an example of the petticoat's development as an outer garment. In the Mierevelt portrait (left), the petticoat barely shows. A half century later, in the portrait of Anna Pamphili, the overskirt is not split but so short that the petticoat is almost completely revealed. A hip roll worn under both the petticoat and the overskirt gives her hips breadth. The petticoat is gathered at the sides and smooth in the front, falling close to her body. The fullness of the petticoat and the overskirt is on the sides — and possibly the back. The heavily trimmed overskirt is stiff but not rigid. Anna Pamphili's shoe peeps out from under the flattened front of the petticoat. The neckline, the hipline, the bottom of the overskirt, the trim at the hem of the petticoat and overskirt and the ribbons on the sleeves — as well as even the hair style — all give Pamphili's outfit a sophisticated horizontal design, a look that soon would become very important and influential as panniers gained popularity. === Panniers === The formal, high-status dress we most associate with the 18th century is the horizontal style of panniers, the hoops at the sides of the skirt, which is closer to the body in front and back. Popular in the mid century in France, panniers continued to dominate design in court dress in the U.K. "well into the 19th century."<ref name=":113">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|413}} ''Paniers anglais'' were 8-hoop panniers.<ref name=":74">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|219}} Panniers were made from a variety of materials, most of which have not survived into the 21st century, and the most common materials used panniers has not been established. Lewandowski says that skirts were "stretched over metal hoops" that "First appear[ed] around 1718 and [were] in fashion [for much of Europe] until 1800. ... By 1750 the one-piece pannier was replaced by [two pieces], with one section over each hip."<ref name=":74" />{{rp|219}} According to Payne, another kind of pannier "consisted of a pair of caned or boned [instead of metal] pouches, their inner surfaces curved to the ... contour of the hips, the outside extending well beyond them."<ref name=":113" />{{rp|428}} Given that it is a natural material, surviving examples of cane for the structure of panniers are an unexpected gift, although silk, linen and wool also occasionally exists in museum collections. No examples of bone structures for panniers exist, suggesting that bone is less hardy than cane. Waugh says that whalebone was the only kind of "bone" (it was actually cartilage, of course) used;<ref name=":19">Waugh, Norah. ''Corsets and Crinolines''. New York, NY: Theatre Arts Books, 1954. Rpt. Routledge/Theatre Arts Books, 2000.</ref>{{rp|167}} Payne says cane and whalebone were used for panniers.<ref name=":113" />{{rp|426}} Neither Payne nor Waugh mention metal. Examples of metal structures for panniers have also not survived, perhaps because they were rare or occurred later, during revolutionary times, when a lot of things got destroyed. The pannier was not the only silhouette in the 18th century. In fact, the speed with which fashion changed continued to accelerate in this century. Payne describes "Six basic forms," which though evolutionary were also quite distinct. Further, different events called for different styles, as did the status and social requirements for those who attended. For the first time in the clothing history of the culturally elite, different distinct fashions overlapped rather than replacing each other, the clothing choices marking divisions in this class. The century saw Payne's "Six basic forms" or silhouettes generally in this order but sometimes overlapping: # '''Fullness in the back'''. The fabric bustle. While we think of the bustle as a 19th-century look, it can be found in the 18th century, as Payne says.<ref name=":114">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|411}} The overskirt was all pulled to the back, the fullness probably mostly made by bunched fabric. # '''The round skirt'''. "The bell or dome shape resulted from the reintroduction of hoops[,] in England by 1710, in France by 1720."<ref name=":114" />{{rp|411}} # '''The ellipse, panniers'''. "The ellipse ... was achieved by broadening the support from side to side and compressing it from front to back. It had a long run of popularity, from 1740 to 1770, the extreme width being retained in court costumes. ... English court costume [411/413] followed this fashion well into the nineteenth century."<ref name=":114" />{{rp|411, 413}} # '''Fullness in the back and sides'''. "The dairy maid, or [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Polonaise|polonaise]], style could be achieved either by pulling the lower part of the overskirt through its own pocket holes, thus creating a bouffant effect, or by planned control of the overskirt, through the cut or by means of draw cords, ribbons, or loops and buttons, which were used to form the three great ‘poufs’ known as the polonaise .... These diversions appeared in the late [seventeen] sixties and became prevalent in the seventies. They were much like the familiar styles of our own [American] Revolutionary War period."<ref name=":114" />{{rp|413}} # '''Fullness in the back'''. The return of the bustle in the 1780s.<ref name=":114" />{{rp|413}} # '''No fullness'''. The tubular [or Empire] form, drawn from classic art, in the 1790s.<ref name=":114" />{{rp|413}} Hoops affected how women sat, went through doors and got into carriages, as well as what was involved in the popular dances. Length of skirts and trains. Some doorways required that women wearing wide panniers turn sideways, which undermined the "entrance" they were expected to make when they arrived at an event. Also, a woman might be accompanied by a gentleman, who would also be affected by her panniers and the width of the doorway. Over the century skirts varied from ankle length to resting on the floor. Women wearing panniers would not have been able to stand around naturally: the panniers alone meant they had to keep their elbows bent. [[File:Panniers_1.jpg|alt=Photograph of the wooden and fabric skeleton of an 18th-century women's foundation garment|left|thumb|Wooden and Fabric-covered Structure for 18th-century Panniers]] [[File:Hoop_petticoat_and_corset_England_1750-1780_LACMA.jpg|thumb|Hooped Petticoat and Corset, 1750–80]] The 1760–1770 French panniers (left) are "a rare surviving example"<ref name=":15">{{Citation|title=Panniers|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/139668|date=1760–70|accessdate=2025-01-01}}. The Costume Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/139668.</ref> of the structure of this foundation garment. Almost no examples of panniers survive. The hoops are made with bent cane, held together with red velvet silk ribbon that looks pinked. The cane also appears to be covered with red velvet, and the hoops have metal "hinges that allow [them] to be lifted, facilitating movement in tight spaces."<ref name=":15" /> This inventive hingeing permitted the wearer to lift the bottom cane and her skirts, folding them up like an accordion, lifting the front slightly and greatly reducing the width (and making it easier to get through doors). ['''Write the Met to ask about this description once it's finished. Are there examples of boned or metal panniers that they're aware of?'''] The corset and hoops shown (right) are also not reproductions and are also rare examples of foundation garments surviving from the 18th century. These hoops are made with cane held in place by casings sewn into a plain-woven linen skirt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://collections.lacma.org/node/214714|title=Woman's Hoop Petticoat (Pannier) {{!}} LACMA Collections|website=collections.lacma.org|access-date=2025-01-03}} Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://collections.lacma.org/node/214714.</ref> These 1750–1780 hoops are modestly wide, but the gathering around the casings for the hoops suggests that the panniers could be widened if longer hoops were inserted. (The corset shown with these hoops is treated in the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsets|Corsets section]]. The mannequin is wearing a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Chemise|chemise undergarment]] as well.) [[File:Johanna_Gabriele_of_Habsburg_Lorraine1_copy.jpg|left|thumb|Martin van Meytens, Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine, c. 1760]] In her c. 1760 portrait (left), Johanna Gabriele of Habsburg Lorraine is wearing exaggerated court-dress panniers, shown here about the widest that they got. Johanna Gabriele was the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, so she was a sister of Marie Antoinette, who also would have worn panniers as exaggerated as these. Johanna Gabriele's hairstyle has not grown into the huge bouffant style that developed to balance the wide court dress, so her outfit looks out of proportion in this portrait. And, because of her panniers, her arms look slightly awkward. The tips of her shoes show because her skirt has been pulled back and up to rest on them. France had become the leader in high fashion by the middle of the century, led first by Madame Pompadour and then by Marie Antoinette, who was crowned queen in 1774.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-23|title=Marie Antoinette|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Antoinette|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Court dress has always been regulated, but it could be influenced. Marie Antoinette's influence was toward exaggeration, both in formality and in informality. In their evolution formal-dress skirts moved away from the body in front and back but were still wider on the sides and were decorated with massive amounts of trim, including ruffles, flowers, lace and ribbons. The French queen led court fashion into greater and greater excess: "Since her taste ran to dancing, theatrical, and masked escapades, her costumes and those of her court exhibited quixotic tendencies toward absurdity and exaggeration."<ref name=":115">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|428}} Both Madame Pompadour's and Marie Antoinette's taste ran to extravagance and excess, visually represented in the French court by the clothing. [[File:Marie_Antoinette_1778-1783.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in 1778 and 1779]] The two portraits (right), painted by Élizabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun in 1778 on the left and 1779 on the right, show Marie Antoinette wearing the same dress. Although one painting has been photographed as lighter than the other, the most important differences between the two portraits are slight variations in the pose and the hairstyle and headdress. Her hair in the 1779 painting is in better proportion to her dress than it is in the earlier one, and the later headdress — a stylized mobcap — is more elaborate and less dependent on piled-up hair. (The description of the painting in Wikimedia Commons says she gave birth between these two portraits, which in particular affected her hair and hairline.<ref>"File:Marie Antoinette 1778-1783.jpg." ''Wikimedia Commons'' [<bdi>Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun, 2 portraits of Marie Antoinette</bdi>] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marie_Antoinette_1778-1783.jpg.</ref>) [[File:Queen_Charlotte,_by_studio_of_Thomas_Gainsborough.jpg|left|thumb|Queen Charlotte of England, 1781]] In this 1781<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/wd/jAGip1dpEkf-Fw|title=Portrait of Queen Charlotte of England - Thomas Gainsborough, studio|website=Google Arts & Culture|language=en|access-date=2025-04-16}}</ref> portrait from the workshop of Thomas Gainsborough (left), Queen Charlotte is wearing panniers less exaggerated in width than Johanna Gabriele's. The English did not usually wear panniers as wide as those in French court dress, but the decoration and trim on the English Queen Charlotte's gown are as elaborate as anything the French would do. The ruffles (many of them double) and fichu are made with a sheer silk or cotton, which was translucent rather than transparent. The ruffles on Queen Charlotte's sleeves are made of lace. The ruffles and poufs of sheer silk are edged in gold. The embroidered flowers and stripes, as well as the sequin discs and attached clusters are all gold. The skirt rose above the floor, revealing Queen Charlotte's pointed shoe. Shoes were fashion accessories because of the shorter length of the skirts. The whole look is more balanced because of the bouffant hairstyle, the less extreme width in the panniers and the greater fullness in front (and, probably, back). The white dress worn by the queen in Season 1, Episode 4 of the BBC and Canal+ series ''Marie Antoinette'' stands out because nobody else is wearing white at the ball in Paris and because of the translucent silk or muslin fabric, which would have been imported from India at that time (some silk was still being imported from China). Muslin is not a rich or exotic fabric to us, but toward the end of the 18th century, muslin could be imported only from India, making it unusual and expensive.<blockquote>Another English contribution to the fashion of the eighties was the sheer white muslin dress familiar to us from the paintings of Reynolds, Romney, and Lawrence. In this respect the English fell under the spell of classic Greek influence sooner than the French did. Lacking the restrictions imposed by Marie Antoinette's court, the English were free to adapt costume designs from the source which was inspiring their architects and draftsmen.<ref name=":115" />{{rp|438}}</blockquote>So while a sheer white dress would have been unlikely in Marie Antoinette's court, according to Payne, the fabric itself was available and suddenly became very popular, in part because of its simplicity and its sheerness. The Empire style replaced the Rococo busyness in a stroke, like the French Revolution. By the 1790s French and English fashion had evolved in very different directions, and also by this time, accepted fashion and court dress had diverged, with the formulaic properties of court dress — especially in France — preventing its development. In general,<blockquote>English women were modestly covered ..., often in overdress and petticoat; that heavier fabrics with more pattern and color were used; and that for a while hairdress remained more elaborate and headdress more involved than in France.<ref name=":116">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|441}}</blockquote>Even in such a rich and colorful court dress as Queen Charlotte is wearing in the Gainsborough-workshop portrait, her more "modest" dress shows these trends very clearly: the white (muslin or silk) and the elaborate style in headdress and hair. === Polonaise === ==== Marie Antoinette — The Context ==== The robe à la Polonaise in casual court dress was popularized by Marie Antoinette for less formal settings and events, a style that occurred at the same time as highly formal dresses with panniers. An informal fashion not based on court dress, although court style would require panniers, though not always the extremely wide ones, and the new style. It was so popular that it evolved into one way court dress could b [[File:Marie_Antoinette_in_a_Park_Met_DP-18368-001.jpg|thumb|Le Brun, ''Marie Antoinette in a Park'']] Trianon: Marie Antoinette's "personal" palace at Versailles, where she went to entertain her friends in a casual environment. While there, in extended, several-day parties, she and her friends played games, did amateur theatricals, wore costumes, like the stylization of what a dairy maid would wear. A release from the very rigid court procedures and social structures and practices. Separate from court and so not documented in the same way events at Versailles were. In the c. 1780–81 sketch (right) of Marie Antoinette in a Park by Elisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun,<ref>Le Brun, Elisabeth Louise Vigée. ''Marie Antoinette in a Park'' (c. 1780–81). The Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/824771.</ref> the queen is wearing a robe à la Polonaise with an apron in front, so we see her in a relatively informal pose and outfit. The underskirt, which is in part at least made of a sheer fabric, shows beneath the overskirt and the apron. This is a late Polonaise, more decoration, additions of ribbons, lace, lace, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Plastics|plastics]], ruffles, which did not exist on actual milkmaid dresses or earlier versions of the robe à la Polonaise. Even though this is a sketch, we can see that this dress would be more comfortable and convenient for movement because the bodice is not boned, and wrinkles in the bodice suggest that she is not likely wearing a corset. ==== Definition of Terms ==== The Polonaise was a late-Georgian or late-18th-century style, the usage of the word in written English dating from 1773 although ''Polonaise'' is French for ''the Polish woman'', and the style arose in France:<blockquote>A woman's dress consisting of a tight, unboned bodice and a skirt open from the waist downwards to reveal a decorative underskirt. Now historical.<ref name=":13">“Polonaise, N. & Adj.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, September 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2555138986.</ref></blockquote>The lack of boning in the bodice would make this fashion more comfortable than the formal foundation garments worn in court dress. The term ''á la polonaise'' itself is not in common use by the French nowadays, and the French ''Wikipédia'' doesn't use it for clothing. French fashion drawings and prints from the 18th-century, however, do use the term. <p>Elizabeth Lewandowski dates the Polonaise style from about 1750 to about 1790,<ref name=":75">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|123}} and Payne says it was "prevalent" in the 1770s.<ref name=":117">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|413}}/</p> <p>The style à la Polonaise was based on an idealization of what dairy maids wore, adapted by aristocratic women and frou-froued up. Two dairymaids are shown below, the first is a caricature of a stereotypical milkmaid and the second is one of Marie Antoinette's ladies in waiting costumed as a milkmaid.</p> [[File:La_laitiere._G.16931.jpg|left|thumb|Mixelle, ''La Laitiere'' (the Milkmaid)]] [[File:Madame_A._Aughié,_Friend_of_Queen_Marie_Antoinette,_as_a_Dairymaid_in_the_Royal_Dairy_at_Trianon_-_Nationalmuseum_-_21931.tif|thumb|Madame A. Aughié, as a Dairymaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon]] In the aquatint engraving of ''La Laitiere'' (left) by Jean-Marie Mixelle (1758–1839),<ref>Mixelle, Jean-Marie. ''La Laitiere'', Musée Carnavalet, Histoire de Paris, Inventory Number: G.16931. https://www.parismuseescollections.paris.fr/fr/musee-carnavalet/oeuvres/la-laitiere-8#infos-secondaires-detail.</ref> the milkmaid is portrayed as flirtatious and, perhaps, not virtuous. She is wearing clogs and two white aprons. Her bodice is laced in front, the ruffle is probably her chemise showing at her neckline, and the peplum sticks out, drawing attention to her hips. As apparently was typical, she is wearing a red skirt, short enough for her ankles to show. The piece around her neck has become untucked from her bodice, contributing to the sexualizing, as does the object hanging from her left hand and directing the eye to her bosom. (The collection of engravings that contains this one is undated but probably from the late 19th or early 20th century.) The 1787 <bdi>Adolf Ulrik Wertmüller</bdi> portrait of Madame Adélaïde Aughié in the Royal Dairy at Petit Trianon-Le Hameau<ref>Wertmüller, Adolf Ulrik. ''Adélaïde Auguié as a Dairy-Maid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon''. 1787. The National Museum of Sweden, Inventory number NM 4881. https://collection.nationalmuseum.se/en/collection/item/21931/.</ref> (right) is about as casual as Le Trianon got. A contemporary of Marie Antoinette, she is in costume as a milkmaid in the Royal Dairy at Trianon, perhaps for a theatrical event or a game. Her dress is not in the à la Polonaise style but a court interpretation of what a milkmaid would look like, in keeping with the hired workers at le Trianon. ==== The 3 Poufs ==== Visually, the style à la Polonaise is defined by the 3 poufs made by the gathering-up of the overskirt. Initially most of the fabric was bunched to make the poufs, but eventually they were padded or even supported by panniers. Payne describes how the polonaise skirt was constructed, mentioning only bunched fabric and not padding:<blockquote>The dairy maid, or polonaise, style could be achieved either by pulling the lower part of the overskirt through its own pocket holes, thus creating a bouffant effect, or by planned control of the overskirt, through the cut or by means of draw cords, ribbons, or loops and buttons, [or, later, buckles] which were used to form the three great ‘poufs’ known as the polonaise .... These diversions [the poufs] appeared in the late [seventeen] sixties and became prevalent in the seventies. They were much like the familiar styles of our own [American] Revolutionary War period.<ref name=":118">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|413}}</blockquote> [[File:Robe_à_la_polonaise_jaune_et_violette,_Galerie_des_modes,_Fonds_d'estampes_du_XVIIIème_siècle,_G.4555.jpg|thumb|Robe à la polonaise, c. 1775]] The overskirt, which was gathered or pulled into the 3 distinctive poufs, was sometimes quite elaborately decorated, revealing the place of this garment in high fashion (rather than what an actual working dairy maid might wear). The fabrics in the underskirt and overskirt sometimes were different and contrasting; in simpler styles, the two skirts might have the same fabrics. More complexly styled dresses were heavily decorated with ruffles, bows, [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Plastics|plastics]], ribbons, flowers, lace and trim. The c. 1775<ref name=":21">"Robe à la polonaise jaune et violette, Galerie des modes, Fonds d'estampes du XVIIIème siècle." Palais Galliera, musée de la Mode de la Ville de Paris. Inventory number: G.4555. https://www.parismuseescollections.paris.fr/fr/palais-galliera/oeuvres/robe-a-la-polonaise-jaune-et-violette-galerie-des-modes-fonds-d-estampes-du#infos-principales.</ref> fashion color print (right) shows the way the overskirt of the Polonaise was gathered into 3 poufs, one in back and one on either side. In this illustration, the underskirt and the overskirt have the same yellow fabric trimmed with a flat band of purple fabric. The 18th-century caption printed below the image identifies it as a "Jeune Dame en robe à la Polonoise de taffetas garnie a plat de bandes d'une autre couleur: elle est coeffée d'un mouchoir a bordures découpées, ajusté avec gout et bordé de fleurs [Young Lady in a Polonaise dress of taffeta trimmed flat with bands of another color: she is wearing a handkerchief with cut edges, tastefully adjusted and bordered with flowers]."<ref name=":21" /> The skirt's few embellishments are the tasseled bows creating the poufs. The gathered underskirt falls straight from the padded hips to a few inches above the floor. Her cap is interesting, perhaps a forerunner of the mob cap (here a handkerchief worn as a cap ["mouchoir a bordures découpées"]). ===== The Evolution of the Polonaise into Court Dress ===== Part of the original attraction of the robe à la Polonaise was that women did not wear their usual heavy corsets and hoops, which is what would have made this style informal, playful, easy to move in, an escape from the stiffness of court life. Traditionally court dress with panniers and the robe à la Polonaise were thought to be separate, competing styles, but actually the two styles influenced each other and evolved into a design that combined elements from both. By the time the robe à la Polonaise became court dress, the poufs were no longer only bunched fabric but large, controlled elaborations that were supported by structural elements, and the silhouette of the dress had returned to the ellipsis shape provided by panniers, with perhaps a little more fullness in front and back. The underskirt fell straight down from the hip level, indicating that some kind of padding or structure pulled it away from the body. Court dress required the controlled shape of the skirt and a tightly structured bodice, which could have been achieved with corseting or tight lacing of the bodice itself. In the combined style, the bodice comes to a pointed V below the waist, which could only be kept flat by stays. While the Polonaise was ankle length, court dress touched the floor. The following 3 images are fashion prints showing Marie Antoinette in court dress influenced by the robe à la Polonaise, made into a personal style for the queen by the asymmetrical poufs, the reduction of Rococo decoration, layers stacked upon each other and a length that keeps the hem of the skirts off the floor. [[File:Marie_Antoinette_de_modekoningin_Gallerie_des_Modes_et_Costumes_Français_Gallerie_des_Modes_et_Costumes_Français,_1787,_ooo_356_Grand_habit_de_bal_a_la_Cour_(..),_RP-P-2009-1213.jpg|left|thumb|Marie Antoinette in a Court Ball Gown à la Polonaise]] The 1787 "Grand habit de bal à la Cour, avec des manches à la Gabrielle & c." (left) by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a ballgown for the court with sleeves à la Gabrielle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Marie-Antoinette-The-Queen-of-Fashion-Gallerie-des-Modes-et-Costumes-Francais--10ceb0e05fbb45ad4941bed1dacb27f1|title=Marie Antoinette: The Queen of Fashion: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}</ref> This ballgown, influenced by the robe à la polonaise, is balanced but asymmetrical and seems to have panniers for support of the side poufs. The only decoration on the skirt is ribbon or braid and tassels. Contrasting fabrics replace the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Frou-frou|frou-frou]] for more depth and interest. The lining of the poufs has been pulled out for another contrasting color. The print makes it impossible to tell if the purple is an underskirt and an overskirt or one skirt with attached loops of the ribbon-like trim. (A sleeve à la Gabrielle has turned out to be difficult to define. The best we can do, which is not perfect, is a 4 July 1814 description: "On fait, depuis quelque temps, des manches à la Gabrielle. Ces manches, plus courtes que les manches ordinaires, se terminent par plusieurs rangs de garnitures. Au lieu d'un seul bouillonné au poignet, on en met trois ou quatre, que l'on sépare par un poignet."<ref>"Modes." ''Journal des Dames et des Modes''. 4 July 1814 (18:37), vol. 10, 1. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=kwNdAAAAcAAJ.</ref>{{rp|296}} ["For some time now, sleeves have been made in the Gabrielle style. These sleeves, shorter than ordinary sleeves, end in several rows of trimmings. Instead of a single ruffle at the wrist, three or four are used, separated by a wrist treatment."] The sleeves on the bodice of robes à la Polonaise seem to have been short, 3/4-length or less.) [[File:Gallerie_des_Modes_et_Costumes_Français,_1787,_sss_384_Robe_de_Cour_à_la_Turque_(..),_RP-P-2009-1220.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in a Court Dress à la Turque]] The c. 1787 "Robe de Cour à la Turque, coeffure Orientale aves des aigrettes et plumes, &c." (right) by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a court dress à la Turque with a headdress that has [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Aigrette|aigrettes]] and plumes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/---75499afec371ac1741dd98d769b14698|title=Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français, 1787, sss 384 : Robe de Cour à la Turque; (...)|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}</ref> The "coeffure Orientale" seems to be a highly stylized turban. This court dress is à la Polonaise in that it has poufs, but it has 2 layers of poufs and an underskirt with a large ruffle. With its unusual striped fabric, its contrasting colors, the very asymmetrical skirt and the ruffles, bows and tassels, this is an elaborate and visually complex dress, but it is not decorated with a lot of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Frou-frou|frou-frou]]. Several prints in this fashion collection show the robe à la Turque, a late-Georgian style [1750–1790],<ref name=":76">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|250}} none of which look "Turkish" in the slightest. Lewandowski defines robe à la Turque:<blockquote>Very tight bodice with trained over-robe with funnel sleeves and a collar. Worn with a draped sash.<ref name=":76" />{{rp|250}}</blockquote>Her "Robe à la Reine" might offer a better description of this outfit, or at least of the overskirt:<blockquote>Popular from 1776 to 1787, bodice with an attached overskirt swagged back to show the underskirt. .... Gown was short sleeved and elaborately decorated.<ref name=":76" />{{rp|250}}</blockquote> [[File:Marie_Antoinette_de_modekoningin_Gallerie_des_Modes_et_Costumes_Français_Gallerie_des_Modes_et_Costumes_Francais,_1787,_ooo.359,_Habit_de_Cour_en_hyver_(titel_op_object),_RP-P-2004-1142.jpg|thumb|Marie Antoinette in Winter Court Fashion]] This 18th-century interpretation of what looked Turkish would have been about what was fashionable and, in the case of Marie Antoinette's court, dramatic. The 1787 "Habit de Cour en hyver garni de fourrures &c." (right) of Marie Antoinette by printmaker Nicolas Dupin, after a drawing by Augustin de Saint-Aubin, shows Marie Antoinette in a winter court outfit trimmed with white fur.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Marie-Antoinette-The-Queen-of-Fashion-Gallerie-des-Modes-et-Costumes-Francais--727dc366885cc0596cd60d7b2c57e207|title=Marie Antoinette: The Queen of Fashion: Gallerie des Modes et Costumes Français|website=Rijksmuseum.nl|language=en|access-date=2025-05-02}}</ref> Unusually, this "habit" à la Polonaise has a train. The highly stylized court version of a mob cap was appropriated from the peasantry and turned into this extravagant headdress with its unrealistic high crown and its huge ribbon and bows. This outfit as a whole is balanced even though individual elements (like the cap and the white drapes gathered and bunched with bows and tassels) are out of proportion. The decadence of the aristocratic and royal classes in France at the end of the 18th century are revealed by these extravagant, dramatic fashions in court dress. These restructured, redesigned court dresses are the merging of the earlier, highly decorated and formal pannier style with the simpler, informal style à la Polonaise. The design is complex, but the complexity does not result from the variety of decorations. The most important differences in the merged design are in the radical reduction of frou-frou and the number of layers. Also, sometimes, the skirts are ankle rather than floor length. The foundation garments held the layers away from the legs, not restricting movement. The different styles of farthingales that existed at the same time are variations on a theme, but the panniers and the Polonaise styles, which also existed at the same time, had different purposes and were designed for different events, but the two styles influenced each other to the point that they merged. All the various forms of hoops we've discussed so far are not discrete but moments in a long evolution of foundation structures. Once fashion had moved on, they all passed out of style and were not repeated. Except the Polonaise, which had influence beyond the 18th century — in the 1870s revival of the à la Polonaise style and in Victorian fancy-dress (or costume) balls. For example, [[Social Victorians/People/Pembroke#Lady Beatrix Herbert|Lady Beatrix Herbert]] at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] was wearing a Polonaise, based on a Thomas Gainsborough portrait of dancer Giovanna Baccelli. === Crinoline Hoops === ''[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Crinoline|Crinoline]]'', technically, is the name for a kind of stiff fabric made mostly from horsehair and sometimes linen, stiffened with starch or glue, and used for [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Foundation Garments|foundation garments]] like petticoats or bustles. The term ''crinoline'' was not used at first for the cage (shown in the image below left), but that kind of structure came to be called a crinoline as well as a cage, and the term is still used in this way by some. After the 1789 French Revolution, for about one generation, women stopped wearing corsets and hoops in western Europe.<ref name=":119">Payne, Blanche. ''History of Costume from the Ancient Egyptians to the Twentieth Century''. Harper & Row, 1965.</ref>{{rp|445–446}} What they did wear was the Empire dress, a simple, columnar style of light-weight cotton fabric that idealized classical Greek outlines and aesthetics. Cotton was a fabric for the elite at this point since it was imported from India or the United States. Sometimes women moistened the fabric to reveal their "natural" bodies, showing that they were not wearing artificial understructures. [[File:Crinoline_era3.gif|left|thumb|1860s Cage Showing the Structure]] Beginning in the second decade of the 19th century and continuing through the 1830s, corsets returned and skirts became more substantial, widened by layers of flounced cotton petticoats — and in winter, heavy woolen or quilted ones. The waist moved down to the natural waist from the Empire height. As skirts got wider in the 1840s, the petticoats became too bulky and heavy, hanging against the legs and impeding movement. In the mid 1850s<ref name=":119" />{{rp|510}} <ref name=":77">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|78}}those layers of petticoats began to be replaced by hoops, which were lighter than all that fabric, even when made of steel, and even when really wide. Lewandowski defines 3 kinds of 19th-century cages:<blockquote>cage: Crinoline (1840–1865 C.E.) to Bustle (1865–1890 C.E.). United Kingdom. Nickname for artificial crinoline; petticoat with whalebone hoops, wire, or watch-string. cage Americaine: Crinoline (1840–1865 C.E.). France. Petticoat in which only bottom half was covered with fabric, upper half only boning. cage empire: Crinoline (1840–1865 C.E.) to Bustle (1865–1890 C.E.). Popular from 1861 to 1869, slightly trained petticoat made of 30 steel hoops that increased in size as they approached the ground.<ref name=":77" /> (46)</blockquote>R. C. Milliett patented the first cage, or crinoline hoops in 1856 in Paris,<ref>"The Fashion." Citing the Collection of the Kent State University Museum. ''Facebook'' 6 August 2025. https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=122200374008095594&set=a.122128150262095594. The Fashion's WhatsApp channel: https://whatsapp.com/channel/0029VbBPfXc2UPBIy6Aj651n.</ref> but cages were in use before the patent. Empress Eugénie of France, wife of Napoleon III, used the cage in 1855 to obscure evidence of pregnancy, which let her be more present in public:<blockquote>“On November 23, 1855, Lord Malmesbury went to a dinner at the Tuileries and found Eugénie “looking very handsome, and all appearances concealed by the large dresses now worn.”<ref name=":22">Goldstone, Nancy. ''The Rebel Empresses: Elisabeth of Austria and Eugénie of France, Power and Glamour in the Struggle for Europe''. Little, Brown, 2025.</ref>{{rp|296}}</blockquote>The caged crinoline was Eugénie's<blockquote>signature, over-the-top look. An update on the eighteenth-century pannier worn by her muse, Marie Antoinette, the caged crinoline created a skirt so broad that it often made it difficult for a woman wearing one to get through a doorway [like the court panniers of Marie Antoinette's time]. Because they were all the rage at the French court, crinolines were immensely popular for years — Sisi [Elisabeth, Empress of Austro-Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire as well as Queen Victoria] owned one ... — but for Eugenie, the dome-shaped skirts had the added advantage, as Malmesbury pointed out, of hiding her condition in case she miscarried again.<ref name=":22" />{{rp|296, n. vi}}</blockquote>The sketch (above left) shows a crinoline cage from the 1850s and 1860s, making clear the structure that underlay the very wide, bell or hemisphere shapes of the era without the fabric that would normally have covered it.<ref>Jensen, Carl Emil. ''Karikatur-album: den evropaeiske karikature-kunst fra de aeldste tider indtil vor dage. Vaesenligst paa grundlag af Eduard Fuchs : Die karikature'', Eduard Fuchs. Vol. 1. København, A. Chrustuabsebs Forlag, 1906. P. 504, Fig. 474 (probably) ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=BUlHAQAAMAAJ.</ref> (This image was published in a book in 1904, but it may have been drawn earlier. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Chemise|chemise]] is accurate but oversimplified, minus the usual ruffles, more for the wealthy and less for the working classes.) '''The common underwear of this time would have been two individual legs connected at the waist, at most. The woman's crotch would not be enclosed, leaving her exposed if she fell or the wind was strong enough to lift her skirts far enough.''' [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester (later Duchess of Devonshire)]] must have been wearing a cage like this in 1859 when one of her hoops caught in a stile she was crossing and she fell. She landed "on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats remaining above her head," revealing "to all the world in general and the Duc de Malakoff in particular" that she was wearing "a pair of scarlet tartan knickerbockers," the kind of garment men would wear when hunting.<ref name=":2022">Vane, Henry. ''Affair of State: A Biography of the 8th Duke and Duchess of Devonshire''. Peter Owen, 2004.</ref> When people think of 1860s hoops, they think of this shape, the one shown in, say, the 1939 film ''Gone with the Wind''. The extremely wide, round shape, which is what we are accustomed to seeing in historical fiction and among re-enactors, was very popular in the late 1850s and early 1860s, but it was not the only shape hoops took at this time. The half-sphere shape — in spite of what popular history prepares us to think — was far from universal. [[File:Miss_Victoria_Stuart-Wortley,_later_Victoria,_Lady_Welby_(1837-1912)_1859.jpg|thumb|Victoria Stuart-Wortley, 1859]] As the 1860s progressed, hoops (and skirts) moved towards the back, creating more fullness there and leaving a flatter front. The photographs below show the range of choices for women in this decade. Cages could be more or less wide, skirts could be more or less full in back and more or less flat in front, and skirts could be smooth, pleated or folded, or gathered. Skirts could be decorated with any of the many kinds of ruffles or with layers (sometimes made of contrasting fabrics), and they could be part of an outfit with a long bodice or jacket (sometimes, in fact, a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Peplum|peplum]]). As always, the woman's social class and sense of style, modesty and practicality affected her choices. In her portrait (right) Victoria Stuart-Wortley (later Victoria, Lady Welby) is shown in 1859, two years before she became one of Queen Victoria's maids of honor. While Stuart-Wortley is dressed fashionably, her style of clothing is modest and conservative. The wrinkles and folds in the skirt suggest that she could be wearing numerous petticoats (which would have been practical in cold buildings), but the smoothness and roundness of the silhouette of the skirt suggest that she is wearing conservative hoops. [[File:Elisabeth_Franziska_wearing_a_crinoline_and_feathered_hat.jpg|left|thumb|Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska, 1860s]] The portrait of Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska (left) offers an example of hoops from the 1860s that are not half-sphere shaped and a skirt that is not made to fit smoothly over them. The dress seems to have a short peplum whose edges do not reach the front. She is standing close to the base of the column and possibly leaning on the balustrade, distorting the shape of the skirt by pushing the hoop forward. This dress has a complex and sophisticated design, in part because of the weight and textures of the fabric and trim. The folds in the skirt are unusually deep. Even though the textured or flocked fabric is light-colored, this could be a winter dress. The skirt is trimmed with zig-zag rows of ruffles and a ruffle along the bottom edge. The ruffles may be double with the top ruffle a very narrow one (made of an eyelet or some kind of textured fabric). Both the top and bottom edges of the tiered double ruffles are outlined in a contrasting fabric, perhaps of ribbon or another lace, perhaps even crocheted. Visual interest comes from the three-dimensionality provided by the ruffles and the contrast caused by dark crocheted or ribbon edging on the ruffles. In fact, the ruffles are the focus of this outfit. [[File:Her_Majesty_the_Queen_Victoria.JPG|thumb|Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, 1861]] The photographic portrait (right) of Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle, in evening dress with diadem and jewels, is by Charles Clifford<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ppgcfuck|title=Queen Victoria. Photograph by C. Clifford, 1861.|website=Wellcome Collection|language=en|access-date=2025-02-03}}</ref> of Madrid, dated 14 November 1861 and now held by the Wellcome Institute. Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-20|title=Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> so this carte-de-visite portrait was taken one month before Victoria went into mourning for 40 years. This fashionable dress could be a ballgown designed by a designer. The hoops under these skirts appear to be round rather than elliptical but are rather modest in their width and not extreme. That is, there is as much fullness in the front and back as on the sides. In this style, the skirt has a smooth appearance because it is not fuller at the bottom than the waist, where it is tightly gathered or pleated, so the skirts lie smoothly on the hoops and are not much fuller than the hoops. The smoothness of this skirt makes it definitive for its time. Instead of elaborate decoration, this visually complex dress depends on the woven moiré fabric with additional texture created by the shine and shadows in the bunched gathering of the fabric. The underskirt is gathered both at the waist and down the front, along what may be ribbons separating the gathers and making small horizontal bunches. The overskirt, which includes a train, has a vertical drape caused by the large folds at the waist. The horizontal design in the moiré fabric contrasts with the vertical and horizontal gathers of the underskirt and large, strongly vertical folds of the overskirt. [[File:Queen_Victoria_photographed_by_Mayall.JPG|left|thumb|Queen Victoria photographed by Mayall. early 1860s]] The carte-de-visite portrait of Queen Victoria by John Jabez Edwin Paisley Mayall (left) shows hoops that are more full in the back than the front. Mayall took a number of photographs of the royal family in 1860 and in 1861 that were published as cartes de visite,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2024-11-08|title=John Jabez Edwin Mayall|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jabez_Edwin_Mayall|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> and the style of Victoria's dress is consistent with the early 1860s. The fact that she has white or a very light color at her collar and wrists suggests that she was not in full mourning and thus wore this dress before Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861. We cannot tell what color this dress is, and it may not be black in spite of how it appears in this photograph. Victoria's hoops are modest — not too full — and mostly round, slightly flatter in the front. The skirt gathers more as it goes around the sides to the back and falls without folds in the front, where it is smoother, even over the flatter hoops. This is a winter garment with bulky sleeves and possibly fur trim. Except for what may be an undergarment at the wrists, this one-layer garment might be a dress or a bodice and skirt (perhaps with a short jacket). Over-trimmed garments were standard in this period. Lacking layers, ruffles, lace or frou-frou, the simple design of Victoria's dress is deliberate and balanced — and looks warm. The bourgeois, inexpensive-looking design of this dress echoes Victoria's performance of a queen who is respectable and responsible rather than aristocratic and "fashion forward." So she looks like a middle-class matron. [[File:Queen_Emma_of_Hawaii,_photograph_by_John_&_Charles_Watkins,_The_Royal_Collection_Trust_(crop).jpg|thumb|Queen Emma Kaleleokalani of Hawai'i, 1865]] The portrait (right) of Queen Emma of Hawaii — Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke — is a carte de visite from an album of ''Royal Portraits'' that Queen Victoria collected. The carte-de-visite photograph is labelled 1865 and ''Queen Emma of the Sandwich Islands'',<ref>Unknown Photographer. ''Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke, Queen of the Kingdom of Hawaii (1836-85)''. ''www.rct.uk''. Retrieved 2025-02-07. https://www.rct.uk/collection/2908295/emma-kalanikaumakaamano-kaleleonalani-naea-rooke-queen-of-the-kingdom-of-hawaii.</ref> possibly in Victoria's hand. How Victoria got this photograph is not clear. Queen Emma traveled to North America and Europe between 6 May 1865 and 23 October 1866,<ref>Benton, Russell E. ''Emma Naea Rooke (1836-1885), Beloved Queen of Hawaii''. Lewiston, N.Y., U.S.A. : E. Mellen Press, 1988. ''Internet Archive'' https://archive.org/details/emmanaearooke1830005bent/.</ref>{{rp|49}} visiting London twice, the second time in June 1866.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|date=2025-01-07|title=Queen Emma of Hawaii|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Emma_of_Hawaii|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> In her portrait Queen Emma is standing before some books and an open jewelry box. She shows an elegant sense of style. The silhouette shows a sophisticated variation of the hoops as the fullness has moved to the back and the front flattened. The large pleats suggest a lot of fabric, but the front falls almost straight down. The overskirt and bodice are made from a satin-weave fabric, and the petticoat has a matt woven surface. The overskirt is longer in the back, leading us to expect the petticoat also to be longer and to turn into a train. Although the hoops cause the skirt to fall away from her body in back, the skirt does not drag on the floor as a train would and just clears the floor all the way around. This optical illusion of a train makes this dress look more formal than it actually was. The covered shoulders and décolletage say the dress was not a formal or evening gown. In fact, this looks like a winter dress, and the sleeves (which she has pushed up above her wrist) are wrinkled, suggesting they may be padded. Queen Emma seems to have worn veils like this at other times as well, especially after the death of her husband, as did Victoria, so this is also not her wedding dress. Popular history has led us to believe that crinoline hoops were half-spherical and always very wide, but photographs of the time show a variety of shapes for skirts, with many women wearing skirts that had flatter fronts and more fabric in the back. In fact, also in the 1860s, according to Lewandowski, a version of the bustle — called a crinolette or crinolette petticoat — developed:<blockquote>Crinolette petticoat: Bustle (1865–1890 C.E.). Worn in 1870 and revived in 1883, petticoat cut flat in front and with half circle steel hoops in back and flounces on bottom back.<ref name=":78">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|78}}</blockquote>This development of a bustle mid century is the result of construction techniques that include foundation structures and specifically shaped pattern pieces to achieve the evolving silhouette, in this case part of the general movement of the fullness of skirts away from the front and toward the back. The other essential element of these construction techniques is angled seams in the skirts, made by gores, pieces of fabric shaped to fit the waist (and sometimes the hips) and to widen at the bottom so that the skirt flares outward. ==== The 19th-century Revival of the Polonaise ==== The Polonaise style was revived in the last third of the 19th century, but the revival did not bring back the 18th-century 3 poufs. The robe à la Polonaise had evolved. The foundation that created the poufs is gone, replaced possibly in fact by the crinolette petticoat or something like it. The panniers — and the 2 side poufs they supported — have gone, and the bulk of the fabric has been bunched in the back. Also, the poufs on the sides have been replaced with a flat drape in front that functions as an overskirt. The Polonaise dress (below left and right), in the collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, is English, dating from about 1875.<ref name=":18">"Woman's Dress Ensemble." Costumes and Textiles. LACMA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://collections.lacma.org/node/214459.</ref> The sheer fabric has red "wool supplementary patterning" woven into the weft.<ref name=":18" /> Because the mannequin is modern, we cannot be certain how long the skirts would have been on the woman who wore this dress. [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|English Polonaise, c. 1875, front view]] [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(4_of_4).jpg|thumb|English Polonaise, c. 1875, side view]] The dress has an overskirt that is draped up toward the back and pulled under the top poof. The underskirt gets fuller at the bottom because it is constructed with gores to create the A-line but it is also slightly gathered at the waist. The vertical element is emphasized by the angled silhouette and the folds caused by the gathering at the waist. The ruffles and lace form horizontal lines in the skirts. The skirts are very busy visually because of pattern in the fabric and the contrasting vertical and horizontal elements as well as the ruffles, some of which are double, and the machine-made lace at the edge of the ruffles. The skirts look three dimensional because of these elements and the layering of the fabric, multiplying the jagged-edged red "supplementary patterning." The fabric of the overskirt is cut, gathered and draped so that the poufs in back are full and rounded, but they are also possibly supported by some kind of foundation structure. The lower pouf in back introduces the idea that the fullness in the back is layered, making this element of the Polonaise a kind of precursor to the bustle and continuing what the crinolette petticoat began in the 1860s. This layering of the lower pouf also indicates one way a train might be attached. Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote about the hoops her fictionalized self wore the century before, unusually, and calls her dress a Polonaise. Although they are common in current historical fiction, descriptions of foundation garments are rare in the writings of the women who wore them or in the literature of the time. In ''These Happy Golden Years'' (1943), Wilder gives a detailed description of the undergarments as well as the foundation garments under her dress, including a bustle, and talks about how they make the Polonaise look on her:<blockquote>Then carefully over her under-petticoats she put on her hoops. She liked these new hoops. They were the very latest style in the East, and these were the first of the kind that Miss Bell had got. Instead of wires, there were wide tapes across the front, almost to her knees, holding the petticoats so that her dress would lie flat. These tapes held the wire bustle in place at the back, and it was an adjustable bustle. Short lengths of tape were fastened to either end of it; these could be buckled together underneath the bustle to puff it out, either large or small. Or they could be buckled together in front, drawing the bustle down close in back so that a dress rounded smoothly over it. Laura did not like a large bustle, so she buckled the tapes in front. Then carefully over all she buttoned her best petticoat, and over all the starched petticoats she put on the underskirt of her new dress. It was of brown cambric, fitting smoothly around the top over the bustle, and gored to flare smoothly down over the hoops. At the bottom, just missing the floor, was a twelve-inch-wide flounce of the brown poplin, bound with an inch-wide band of plain brown silk. The poplin was not plain poplin, but striped with an openwork silk stripe. Then over this underskirt and her starched white corset-cover, Laura put on the polonaise. Its smooth, long sleeves fitted her arms perfectly to the wrists, where a band of the plain silk ended them. The neck was high with a smooth band of the plain silk around the throat. The polonaise fitted tightly and buttoned all down the front with small round buttons covered with the plain brown silk. Below the smooth hips it flared and rippled down and covered the top of the flounce on the underskirt. A band of the plain silk finished the polonaise at the bottom.<ref>Wilder, Laura Ingalls. ''These Happy Golden Years.'' Harper & Row, Publishers, 1943. Pp. 161–163.</ref></blockquote>When a 20th-century Laura Ingalls Wilder calls her character's late-19th-century dress a polonaise, she is probably referring to the "tight, unboned bodice"<ref name=":132">“Polonaise, N. & Adj.” ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP, September 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/2555138986.</ref> and perhaps a simple, modest look like the stereotype of a dairy maid. While the bodice was unboned, the fact that she is wearing a corset cover means that she is corseted under it. ==== Bustle or Tournure ==== As we have seen, bustles were popular from around 1865 to 1890.<ref name=":79">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref>{{rp|296}} The French term ''tournure'' was a euphemism in English for ''bustle''. The article on the tournure in the French ''Wikipédia'' addresses the purpose of the bustle and crinoline:<blockquote>Crinoline et tournure ont exactement la même fonction déjà recherchée à d'autres époques avec le vertugadin et ses dérivés: soutenir l'ampleur de la jupe, et par là souligner par contraste la finesse de la taille; toute la mode du xixe siècle visant à accentuer les courbes féminines naturelles par le double emploi du corset affinant la taille et d'éléments accentuant la largeur des hanches (crinoline, tournure, drapés bouffants…).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-10-27|title=Tournure|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournure|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}}</ref> [Translation by ''Google Translate'': Crinoline and bustle have exactly the same function already sought in other periods with the farthingale and its derivatives: to support the fullness of the skirt, and thereby emphasize by contrast the finesse of the waist; all the fashion of the 19th century aimed at accentuating natural feminine curves by the dual use of the corset refining the waist and elements accentuating the width of the hips (crinoline, bustle, puffy drapes, etc.).]</blockquote>Hoops' final phase was the development of the bustle, which as early as the 1860s was created by one of several methods: by draping the dress over a crinolette petticoat or some other structure, or by pulling the fabric to the back and bunching it with pleats or gathers. The overskirt so popular with the revival of the Polonaise pulled additional fabric to the back of the skirt, the poufs supported by some substructure, bunched fabric, padding and, often, ruffled petticoats. The bustle, then, is more complex than might be normally be thought and more complex than some of the earlier foundation garments in the evolution of hoops, in part because the silhouette of hoops (and dresses) was changing more rapidly in the last half of the 19th century than ever before. [[File:La_Gazette_rose,_16_Mai_1874;_robe_à_tournure.jpg|left|thumb|"Toilettes de Printemps," 1874]] In fact, fashion trends were moving so fast at this point that the two "bustle periods" were actually only two decades, the 1870s and the 1880s. Bustle fashion was at its height for these two decades, which saw the line of the skirts change radically. As the bustle developed, the 1870s ruffles disappeared, replaced by draping and layering, which made the bustles more complex visually. "Toilettes de Printemps" (left), an 1874 French fashion plate, shows two women walking in the country, the one in green wearing an extremely long and impractical train. Both of these have several rows of ruffles beneath the overskirt — a short-lived fashion. The ruffles, which disappear in the 2nd bustle period, create a fullness in the front of the skirt at the bottom. The bodice of both dresses connects to an overskirt, like a jacket. The excess skirt fabric is draped in the back over a foundation structure. Plumes makes the hats tall, part of the proportioning with the bustle. The dog at the feet of the woman in the green dress recalls the dogs ubiquitous in earlier portraiture. The most common image of the bustle — the extreme form of the 1880s — required a complex foundation structure, one of which was "steel springs placed inside the shirring [gathering] around the back of the petticoat."<ref name=":710">Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. ''The Complete Costume Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press, 2011.</ref> (296) Many manufacturers were making bustles by this time, offering women a choice on the kinds of materials used in the foundation structures ['''check this''']. [[File:Somm26.jpg|thumb|Henry Somm, 1880s]] The Henry Somm watercolor (right) offers a clear example of how extreme bustles got in the mid 1880s, in the 2nd bustle period. Henry Somm was the pen name that François Clément Sommier (1844–1907) used on his paintings.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-02-01|title=Henry Somm|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Somm&oldid=222597815|journal=Wikipédia|language=fr}}</ref> He was in Paris beginning in the 1860s and so was present for the Civil War of 1870–71 and the rise of Impressionism in that highly political and dangerous context.<ref>Smee, Sebastian. ''Paris in Ruins: Love, War, and the Birth of Impressionism''. W. W. Norton, 2024.</ref> Somm's c. 1895<ref>"File:Somm26.jpg." Henry Somm, "An Elegantly Dressed Woman at a Door (wearing mid-1880s bustled fashions)," c. 1895. June 2025. Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Somm26.jpg.</ref> impressionist painting shows an immediate moment — an elegant mid-1880s woman outside a door, her right hand and face animated, as if she is talking to someone standing to our left. Her skirt is quite narrow and flat in front with yards of fabric draped in poufs over the huge foundation bustle behind. This dress has no ruffles or excessive frills. The narrow sleeves and tall hat, along with the umbrella so tightly folded it looks like a stick, contribute to the lean silhouette. Details of the dress are not present because this painting is impressionistic rather than realistic, showcasing the play of light on the fabric and the elegance of the woman. The square corner of the front overskirt is not realistic draping, perhaps an artifact of the painter working from memory rather than a model. [[File:Elizabeth_Alice_Austen_in_June_1888.jpg|left|thumb|Elizabeth Alice Austen, 1888]] The 1888 photograph of American photographer Elizabeth Alice Austen (left) is also from the 2nd bustle period. The very stylish Austen is wearing a bustle that is large but not as extreme as they got. The design of her dress is sophisticated and complex with the proportions more clearly presented than we see in paintings or fashion plates. Her plumed hat is tall, one of the vertical elements, along with the slim line of the bodice, sleeves and skirt. The overskirt is pulled to Austen's right so that it does not lie flat in front. The overskirt and bustle are made from 3 different fabrics with 3 different patterns. The front drape and bodice are made of a light-colored fabric with a light striped pattern, and the bustle has 2 fabrics, a shiny reflective material with no pattern and a strongly striped section that matches the underskirt. The strongly and horizontally striped fabric in the underskirt contrasts with the vertical line of the outfit itself. In spite of the very strong contrasts in the stripes and horizontal and vertical elements, Austen's dress has a light touch about it. With the draped overskirt in front and the complex construction of the bustle, Austen's dress makes a delicate reference to the poufs of the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#The 19th-century Revival of the Polonaise|Polonaise revival]]. [[File:Cperrien-fashionplatescan-p-vf_33.jpg|thumb|Fashion plate, mid-1880s]] This mid-1880s fashion plate (right) has caricatures for figures, with the usual minuscule waists and feet, exaggerated height and bustles, and general lack of realism in the details of the dresses. In fact, the drawing obscures what is necessary to understand how they were constructed, but it is useful because of the 3 different ways bustles are working in the illustration. The little girl's overskirt and sash function as a bustle, independent of whatever foundation garments she may be wearing. The two women's outfits have the characteristic narrow sleeves and tall hats, and the one in white is holding another extremely narrow umbrella as well. The bustle on the red-and-white dress is draped loosely over the very large foundation structure that was typical of the 1880s. The striking red jagged edges define the draping of the overskirt in front and the ruffles on the sides. These ruffles are unlike the ruffles of the 1870s, which added volume. They are flattened essentially into layers, preventing them from sticking out and providing texture rather than fullness. The front overskirt is very flat and the back overskirt contributes to the bustle. The front of the bodice on both dresses extends to a point determined by the corset and typical of Victorian shaping. The waist treatment on the green dress visually lengthens the point to an extreme. The front of the green skirt is draped and layered. Tiny pleats peep out from below the skirt on both women's dresses. The child's dress has 3 flat pleated ruffles in front that contrast with the fuller but still controlled folds in the back. These dresses have strongly vertical lines with contrasting horizontal lines in the bustles and trim. Conclusion '''Trains, skirt length, movement, materials, one evolutionary process, natural fabrics, accelerating change in fashion, designers and seamstresses, medium of our illustrations''' == Padding == Some kinds of padding were used in the Victorian age to enlarge women's bosoms and create cleavage as well as to keep elements of a garment puffy. In the Elizabethan era, men's codpieces are examples of padding. With respect to the costumes worn at fancy-dress balls, most important would be bum rolls and cod pieces. What are commonly called '''bum rolls''' were sometimes called roll farthingales, French farthingales or padded rolls. == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 28e7a9c9rac1g23oh2w5iz6msq547ns 14 330858 2822202 2820891 2026-08-15T07:09:26Z Watchduck 137431 2822202 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ ==length 2== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" |colspan="2"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 2, weight 2) 11}} |- | {{Split and epithet tree (length 2, weight 1) 10}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 2, weight 1) 01}} |- |colspan="2"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 2, weight 0) 00}} |} ==length 3== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" | {{Split and epithet tree (length 3, weight 2) 110}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 3, weight 2) 011}} |- | {{Split and epithet tree (length 3, weight 1) 100}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 3, weight 1) 001}} |} ==length 4== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" | {{Split and epithet tree (length 4, weight 0) 0000}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 4, weight 4) 1111}} |- | {{Split and epithet tree (length 4, weight 2) 0110}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 4, weight 2) 1001}} |} ==length 5== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" | {{Split and epithet tree (length 5, weight 2) 01010}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 5, weight 3) 01110}} |} ==length 6== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" |colspan="2"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 6, weight 6) 111111}} |- | {{Split and epithet tree (length 6, weight 5) 111110}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 6, weight 5) 011111}} |} ==length 7== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" | {{Split and epithet tree (length 7, weight 0) 0000000}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 7, weight 1) 0001000}} |- | {{Split and epithet tree (length 7, weight 7) 1111111}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 7, weight 6) 1110111}} |- |colspan="2"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 7, weight 3) 0110010}} |} ==length 8== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" | {{Split and epithet tree (length 8, weight 4) 01011010}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 8, weight 4) 10100101}} |} ==length 9== {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" |+ middle digit flipped | {{Split and epithet tree (length 9, weight 2) 001000100}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 9, weight 3) 001010100}} |} {| class="around-split-epithet-tree" |+ second digit flipped | {{Split and epithet tree (length 9, weight 6) 101111100}} | {{Split and epithet tree (length 9, weight 7) 111111100}} |} {{Split and epithet tree (length 9, weight 2) 010001000}} ==lengths 31 and 32== The numbers of middle digits marked beige in the tables form sequence {{oeis|A053645}}. If the length is a power of two minus one, all parts have a middle digit:<br> {{Split and epithet tree (length 31, weight 17) 0011010010100111011101111001100}} If it is a power of two, there are no middle digits:<br> {{Split and epithet tree (length 32, weight 17) 00110100101001110111011110011000}} <small>styles: {{tl|Split and epithet tree/style.css}}</small> [[Category:Splits and epithets]] gmwbhs3s1n7fh4skpt98zzt5i0iwils 0 330965 2822246 2821046 2026-08-15T11:29:57Z Watchduck 137431 2822246 wikitext text/x-wiki The term '''''split''''' shall be used for the <abbr title="unordered pair (i.e. also a set)">pair</abbr> of a set and its complement. An ''n''-split is the pair of a subset of <math>\{0~...~n-1\}</math> and its complement.<br> That is almost the same as a bipartition (the {{w|partition of a set}} into two blocks). The one split that is not a bipartition is the pair of the empty set and the universe.<br> ''n''-splits are the vertices of a hemi-''n''-cube. Their number is <math>2^{n-1}</math>. Each ''n''-split can be represented by a binary string of length <math>n-1</math>, which shall be called its '''''epithet'''''.<br> Its digits correspond to pairs of neighboring elements of the set. The digit is 1, iff the neighbors are in different blocks.<br> The following image pairs illustrate splits of size 8, 9 and 10. The epithets can be seen in the pattern of red wedges.<br> The digit on the bottom of the circle is not part of the epithet. (It is a {{w|parity bit}}. The full circle always has an even number of wedges.)<br> {| style="border-collapse: collapse;" |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{multiple image | align = center | total_width = 380 | image1 = Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg | image2 = Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59 demi.svg | footer = Split {{0, 1, 3, 4, 5}, {2, 6, 7}} has epithet 0110010. }} |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{multiple image | align = center | total_width = 380 | image1 = Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 198, 313.svg | image2 = Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 198, 313 demi.svg | footer = Split {{0, 3, 4, 5, 8}, {1, 2, 6, 7}} has epithet 10100101. }} |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{multiple image | align = center | total_width = 380 | image1 = Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 60, 963.svg | image2 = Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 60, 963 demi.svg | footer = Split {{0, 1, 6, 7, 8, 9}, {2, 3, 4, 5}} has epithet 010001000. }} |} The epithet can also be defined recursively, as shown in the tables below.<br> Each split of size ''n'' can be seen as the pair of two splits of size <math>\left \lfloor \frac{n}{2} \right \rfloor</math>, and one of size 2 in the middle, if ''n'' is even. {| style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- style="vertical-align: top;" |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 7, weight 3) 0110010}}<br><br><small>See [[:Category:Split and epithet trees|more examples]].</small> |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 8, weight 4) 10100101}} |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{Split and epithet tree (length 9, weight 2) 010001000}} |} The epithet has some of the properties of the split: * Chiral or symmetric splits have chiral or symmetric epithets. * The XOR of splits corresponds to the XOR of epithets. * The rotation of splits corresponds to the rotation of epithets extended by the parity bit. == cycles == [[File:Reverse binary.svg|50px|right|The binary numbers have their most significant bit on the left.]] The following tables show the mirror images and rotations of the splits shown above.<br> For the example of size 8 there is no symmetric split among the rotations. The table shows one cycle in the left and one in the right column.<br> For the examples of size 9 and 10 each table shows one cycle. {| style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- style="vertical-align: top;" |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{Cycle table of 8-split (3, 5) 19, 236}} |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{Cycle table of 9-split (4, 5) 198, 313}} |style="border: 5px solid #eadbbd; padding: 15px;"| {{Cycle table of 10-split (4, 6) 120, 903}} |} The examples have no rotational symmetry, so each cycle has the maximal length. Splits with more rotational symmetry have shorter cycles. {{Collapsible START|short cycles|collapsed gap-above}} {| style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- style="vertical-align: top;" |style="border: 5px solid #eee; padding: 15px;"| {{Cycle table of 8-split (4, 4) 51, 204}} |style="border: 5px solid #eee; padding: 15px;"| {{Cycle table of 9-split (3, 6) 146, 365}} |style="border: 5px solid #eee; padding: 15px;"| {{Cycle table of 10-split (5, 5) 341, 682}} |} {{Collapsible END}} === Walsh permutations === (26, 77, 38, 83, 41, 84, 106, 53) and (21, 43, 86, 44, 89, 50, 101, 74) == Number triangles == So classes of splits are counted by the same relatives of {{w|Pascal's triangle}} as classes of binary strings.<br> The number of symmetric ''n''-splits is <math>2 ^ m</math> with <math>m = \left \lceil \frac{n}{2} \right \rceil</math>, the row sums of the red triangle shown below. {| |- style="vertical-align: top;" |style="padding-right: 50px;"| [[File:Pascal Lozanic binary.svg|thumb|center|x350px|rows 0...5 with binary strings]] | [[File:Pascal Lozanic 0-8.svg|thumb|center|x350px|rows 0...8 &nbsp; <small style="opacity: .7;">(compare [[c:File:Pascal Lozanic 0-16.svg|rows 0...16]])</small>]] |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse;" | &nbsp; ||rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid gray; padding: 10px;"| {{colorbox|#0069d5}} &nbsp; '''all''' {{spaces|5}} {{w|Pascal's triangle|Pascal}} &nbsp; {{oeis|A007318}} {{spaces|5}} <small style="opacity: .5;">powers of two &nbsp; {{oeis|A000079}}</small> || &nbsp; |- | &nbsp; || rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid gray; padding: 10px;"| {{colorbox|#cab088}} &nbsp; '''chiral''' {{spaces|5}} <small><span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #0069d5;">all</span> &minus; <span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #ff3526;">symmetric</span></small> {{spaces|5}} <small style="opacity: .5;">{{oeis|A233411}}</small> |- | &nbsp; || rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid gray; padding: 10px;"| {{colorbox|#ff3526}} &nbsp; '''symmetric''' {{spaces|5}} {{oeis|A051159}} |- | &nbsp; || rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid gray; padding: 10px;"| {{colorbox|#956212}} &nbsp; '''chiral {{w|up to}} reversal''' {{spaces|5}} <small><span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #cab088;">chiral</span> / 2 &nbsp; = &nbsp; <span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #0069d5;">all</span> &minus; <span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #10b202;">all up to reversal</span></small> {{spaces|5}} {{oeis|A034852}} {{spaces|5}} <small style="opacity: .5;">(compare {{oeis|A032085}})</small> |- | &nbsp; || rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid gray; padding: 10px;"| {{colorbox|#10b202}} &nbsp; '''all up to reversal''' {{spaces|5}} <small><span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #ff3526;">symmetric</span> + <span style="border-bottom: 3px solid #956212;">chiral up to reversal</span></small> {{spaces|5}} {{w|Lozanić's triangle|Lozanić}} &nbsp; {{oeis|A034851}} {{spaces|5}} <small style="opacity: .5;">{{oeis|A005418}}</small> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; |} Epithets are one way to represent the hemi-''n''-cube graph in the hull of an (''n''&minus;1)-cube. {{small START}} The common way is probably to assign each pair of ''n''-cube vertices to the one whose <abbr title="most significant bit">MSB</abbr> is 0, resulting in an (''n''&minus;1)-cube graph with edges between opposite vertices.<br> With that representation almost every bit change in the hemi-hypercube corresponds to the same in the graph. Only the change of the last bit corresponds to the change of all bits in the graph. {{small END}} With the epithet representation only the changes of the first and the last bit correspond to the same in the graph. Otherwise, the change of bit ''i'' corresponds to the change of bits ''i''&minus;1 and ''i'' in the graph. {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 420 | image1 = Hemi-tesseract; minimum cube.svg | image2 = Hemi-tesseract; epithet cube.svg | footer = hemi-tesseract vertices assigned to cube vertices }} {{clear}} [[Category:Splits and epithets]] hxnohttvm4axznawr2gkgyn3sfqa26v 828 331015 2822149 2822032 2026-08-14T23:51:05Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822149 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function getTitle() return frame:getTitle() end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; 150rh0ay02oxh57gihlxlcjc8ljzt8q 2822150 2822149 2026-08-14T23:51:18Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822150 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() return frame:getTitle() end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; p8t95xya0c5nl5joj98048gdb3elonj 2822152 2822150 2026-08-14T23:54:17Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822152 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() return frame:getParent():getTitle() end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; r3v4fop97xt19jyalujzep4o48uodgj 2822153 2822152 2026-08-15T00:01:09Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822153 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end return "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() .. "also, " .. cases2 end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; gwrpujb4efhxz5dudlg0amw5n1csha1 2822154 2822153 2026-08-15T00:02:17Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822154 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 local cases3 if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end return cases3 .. "also, " .. cases2 end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; 52wmf5nnt5mdmjqorhtsykurq8z1nwb 2822156 2822154 2026-08-15T00:02:37Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822156 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 local cases3 if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end return cases3 .. "also, " .. cases2 end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; bpg3sl75onwtr6cy4qzt975k9p3qivw 2822164 2822156 2026-08-15T00:16:11Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822164 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; te8933yjg0z0k8wq73s4g6hz7zp0p0v 2822165 2822164 2026-08-15T00:16:56Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822165 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; -- local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; 8sg0hvhvatvqnqd3ziythktny1cbaa3 2822169 2822165 2026-08-15T00:22:36Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822169 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; -- local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.title2() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local PAGENAME = mw.title.getCurrentTitle() local detected = false local out = {} for i, group in ipairs(grammatical_cases) do if group.inessive[PAGENAME] then detected = detected or true local formattedGroup = {} for memberKey, memberRendervalue in pairs(group.inessive) do table.insert(formattedGroup, "<li>" .. memberRendervalue .. "</li>") end table.insert(out, "<h3>" .. group.ablative .. "</h3><ul>" .. table.concat( formattedGroup ) .. "</ul>" ) end end if detected then return table.concat(out) end return end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; 0q5yakmvrdgm5kgu1k17kdoauwbgcgm 2822173 2822169 2026-08-15T00:39:34Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822173 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; -- local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.title3() return mw.title.getCurrentTitle().fullText end function p.title2() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA", ["Module:Sandbox/22"] = "Module:Sandbox/22" } } local concepts = { grammatical_cases, } local PAGENAME = tostring(mw.title.getCurrentTitle()) local detected = false local out = {} local debugger = {} for i, group in ipairs(concepts) do if group.inessive[PAGENAME] then table.insert(debugger,"Okay, managed TRUE on "..i..":"..group.ablative) detected = detected or true local formattedGroup = {} for memberKey, memberRendervalue in pairs(group.inessive) do table.insert(formattedGroup, "<li>" .. memberRendervalue .. "</li>") end table.insert(out, "<h3>" .. group.ablative .. "</h3><ul>" .. table.concat( formattedGroup ) .. "</ul>" ) table.insert(out, "this sucks ass") return "this sucks ass" else table.insert(debugger,"Managed FALSE on "..i..":"..group.ablative..". Comparator: "..PAGENAME..", ") end end return debugger --[[ if detected then return tostring(detected) .. table.concat(out) end return --]] end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; pjj7tg1ayf058qy96rdttrhxrun7k61 0 331046 2822163 2821640 2026-08-15T00:13:10Z U3253363 3106362 added overview 2822163 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres. Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle? Ash is motivated to wake up to swim early every morning because being a swimmer is core to her self-concept. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Headings == Use this heading structure: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] 4ifoci35eu7sszsi4umw4eb8ol7zdx8 2822168 2822163 2026-08-15T00:21:00Z U3253363 3106362 Added focus qs 2822168 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres. Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle? Ash is motivated to wake up to swim early every morning because being a swimmer is core to her self-concept. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *What are the key theories of self-concept? *What are the motivational properties of self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation influence self-concept? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Headings == Use this heading structure: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] erpo4sjoen1led2llkavo76npldjei8 2822171 2822168 2026-08-15T00:30:17Z U3253363 3106362 Added Figure 1. 2822171 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres. Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle? Ash is motivated to wake up to swim early every morning because being a swimmer is core to her self-concept. {{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|thumb]] The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *What are the key theories of self-concept? *What are the motivational properties of self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation influence self-concept? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Headings == Use this heading structure: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] c2v5tgglp0iq1hsqcqphl1hzonr8v92 2822172 2822171 2026-08-15T00:31:36Z U3253363 3106362 2822172 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle? Ash is motivated to wake up to swim early every morning because being a swimmer is core to her self-concept. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *What are the key theories of self-concept? *What are the motivational properties of self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation influence self-concept? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Headings == Use this heading structure: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] h3vi15lxeytxqkqwsau6taynr8lqiag 2822175 2822172 2026-08-15T01:04:26Z U3253363 3106362 /* Overview */ 2822175 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *What are the key theories of self-concept? *What are the motivational properties of self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation influence self-concept? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Headings == Use this heading structure: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] c56hnqqjicycf8tbh2dwclrevx4c8cu 2822244 2822175 2026-08-15T11:23:41Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-concept and motivation:<br>How does self-concept relate to motivation?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]] Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What is self-concept? *What are the key theories of self-concept? *What are the motivational properties of self-concept? *How does self-concept influence motivation? *How does motivation influence self-concept? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Headings == Use this heading structure: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit":<quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] m8tq0vnrnnuktapi9ifnfrhuf4vm7sb 0 331068 2822093 2821649 2026-08-14T12:07:23Z Flickstar888 3106813 Title 2822093 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Envy in the Workplace:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Organisational psychology]] kqyaw2d118wsntnisapr2zdjtkzxcoq 2822094 2822093 2026-08-14T12:12:39Z Flickstar888 3106813 Added titles 2822094 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Envy in the workplace:<br>What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Organisational psychology]] pfyl62qy1l5kaavg6tdan74qanw0rz2 0 331098 2822187 2821917 2026-08-15T05:26:09Z ~2026-44358-51 3106981 fixed title 2822187 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] 2yt70hryo3wq8qw534ez755gahw3gc7 0 331110 2822182 2821907 2026-08-15T02:22:39Z ~2026-44198-70 3107001 added in interim headings 2822182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== * [[#Overview|Overview]] * What is Moral Disgust? * Disgust as a Legally Relevant Emotion * Moral Disgust and Juror Judgements * Moderating Factors * Practical Implications * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] r2x18vn2g8u6qsg3zj6zmon4ps62oar 0 331115 2822190 2822054 2026-08-15T05:35:31Z Jack4234 3106762 2822190 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] </div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] gktkw1a7btxkifyjbq1b87l3exo5qum 2822192 2822190 2026-08-15T05:42:31Z Jack4234 3106762 2822192 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] </div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? === Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit === *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] oh1kmout4jc26y0hm8j89p5x9r6tkp0 2822193 2822192 2026-08-15T05:44:55Z Jack4234 3106762 2822193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] </div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? == Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit == *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 9zxrj7pbxqg1nccj0ptyvv8m1lvnd3d 0 331141 2822091 2822085 2026-08-14T11:59:20Z NDM2024 2984088 2822091 wikitext text/x-wiki Link to the Institute: https://w.wiki/Skm7 '''INTERNATIONAL MARITIME HEALTH DATABASE'''   The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later '''Research responsible unit:''' The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and…. '''Steering Committee''': Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of research, John Snow Prediabetes Institute.   Olaf Chresten Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director. o147248@gmail.com Nailet Delgado Mujica, Eng. M.Sc. Vice director Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, '''Chair''' IMHA: # Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design # Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; # Review of available PEME data and variables * # Participation in the research/steering group; or # Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. # Evidence based health promotion initiatives: passive and active '''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)   '''Strengths of the design''' * Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive.   * Can accumulate large international datasets.   * Reflects real-world clinical practice.   * Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health.   * Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare.   '''Organisers'''   * The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: * Maritime Medical Health Clinics   '''Objectives'''   * To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools.   * To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts   * To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.)   * To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.    '''Data content'''   Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in a specified calendar period.   '''Variables'''   * Age   * Gender: m/f   * Height: cm   * Weight: kg or pounds   * Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student)   * Officer or non-officer on board * Blood pressure   * Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial   * Smoking: y/n   * Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other   * Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n   '''Automatic recoding of data'''   Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024   * Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2   * Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2,   * BMI: normal, overweight, obese   '''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''    Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.    '''Use of the data for prevention'''   To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups.   Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program.   To propose (inter) national maritime health policies.   To be used for the student’s theses.   To publish in international health journals.   '''Type of study''' * International, multicenter observational prevalence database,   * Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data.   * Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.    '''Populations sources''' The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: * Maritime clinics   * Maritime schools   Participants may include: * Seafarers   * Fishers   * Maritime students   * Officers and non-officers   '''Data collection''' The study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations rather than collecting new research-specific measurement * '''Ethics and data governance''' '''Need for ethics review.'''   This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use.   If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.   '''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''   The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information. '''Consent and participant rights'''.   Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand. '''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''   Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval. '''Where data will be stored.'''   Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location. '''Who can access the data.'''   Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details. '''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''   Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved. '''Risk management and oversight.'''   The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.  '''Exclusion Criteria''' * Inability to provide informed consent   * Expressed no-interest to participate '''The primary outcomes include''' * Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM   * Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension * Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity   * Trends by age and sex over time   * Prevalence of participation in a prevention program   '''Planned analyses''' * Estimate disease prevalence.   * Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups.   * Monitor trends over multiple years.   * Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions.   * Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.     '''Statistical analysis plan'''   '''1. Data preparation''' Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes. '''2. Descriptive statistics''' Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages. '''3. Prevalence estimates''' Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval. '''4. Group comparisons''' Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure. '''5. Trend analysis over time''' If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor. '''6. Prediabetes remission program analysis''' Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar. '''7. Multivariable analysis''' Use logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use. '''8. Missing data''' Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis. '''9. Statistical significance''' Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario '''Informed Consent Form''' == International Maritime Health Database == You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: * You have read and understood this information. * You have had the opportunity to ask questions. * You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. '''Participant Name:''' _______________________________ '''Signature:''' ______________________________________ '''Date:''' __________________________________________ '''Researcher/Health Professional:''' ___________________ '''Signature:''' ______________________________________ '''Date:''' __________________________________________   '''References''' # Health of the Danes  <nowiki>https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/</nowiki>            2. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068</nowiki>     63zb3k1xkinobfh1a5ll15livwltu1t 2822092 2822091 2026-08-14T12:00:31Z NDM2024 2984088 2822092 wikitext text/x-wiki Link to the Institute: https://w.wiki/Skm7 '''INTERNATIONAL MARITIME HEALTH DATABASE'''   The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later '''Research responsible unit:''' The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and…. '''Steering Committee''': Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of research, John Snow Prediabetes Institute.   Olaf Chresten Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director. o147248@gmail.com Nailet Delgado Mujica, Eng. M.Sc. Vice director Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, '''Chair''' IMHA: # Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design # Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; # Review of available PEME data and variables * # Participation in the research/steering group; or # Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. # Evidence based health promotion initiatives: passive and active '''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)   '''Strengths of the design''' * Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive.   * Can accumulate large international datasets.   * Reflects real-world clinical practice.   * Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health.   * Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare.   '''Organisers'''   * The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: * Maritime Medical Health Clinics   '''Objectives'''   * To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools.   * To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts   * To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.)   * To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.    '''Data content'''   Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in a specified calendar period.   '''Variables'''   * Age   * Gender: m/f   * Height: cm   * Weight: kg or pounds   * Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student)   * Officer or non-officer on board * Blood pressure   * Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial   * Smoking: y/n   * Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other   * Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n   '''Automatic recoding of data'''   Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024   * Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2   * Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2,   * BMI: normal, overweight, obese   '''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''    Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.    '''Use of the data for prevention'''   To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups.   Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program.   To propose (inter) national maritime health policies.   To be used for the student’s theses.   To publish in international health journals.   '''Type of study''' * International, multicenter observational prevalence database,   * Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data.   * Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.    '''Populations sources''' The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: * Maritime clinics   * Maritime schools   Participants may include: * Seafarers   * Fishers   * Maritime students   * Officers and non-officers   '''Data collection''' The study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations rather than collecting new research-specific measurement * '''Ethics and data governance''' '''Need for ethics review.'''   This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use.   If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.   '''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''   The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information. '''Consent and participant rights'''.   Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand. '''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''   Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval. '''Where data will be stored.'''   Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location. '''Who can access the data.'''   Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details. '''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''   Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved. '''Risk management and oversight.'''   The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.  '''Exclusion Criteria''' * Inability to provide informed consent   * Expressed no-interest to participate '''The primary outcomes include''' * Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM   * Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension * Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity   * Trends by age and sex over time   * Prevalence of participation in a prevention program   '''Planned analyses''' * Estimate disease prevalence.   * Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups.   * Monitor trends over multiple years.   * Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions.   * Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.     '''Statistical analysis plan'''   '''1. Data preparation''' Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes. '''2. Descriptive statistics''' Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages. '''3. Prevalence estimates''' Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval. '''4. Group comparisons''' Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure. '''5. Trend analysis over time''' If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor. '''6. Prediabetes remission program analysis''' Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar. '''7. Multivariable analysis''' Use logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use. '''8. Missing data''' Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis. '''9. Statistical significance''' Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario '''Informed Consent Form''' == International Maritime Health Database == You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: * You have read and understood this information. * You have had the opportunity to ask questions. * You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. '''Participant Name:''' _______________________________ '''Signature:''' ______________________________________ '''Date:''' __________________________________________ '''Researcher/Health Professional:''' ___________________ '''Signature:''' ______________________________________ '''Date:''' __________________________________________   '''References''' # Health of the Danes  <nowiki>https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/</nowiki>            2. <nowiki>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068</nowiki>     52je8v2l6r8w90td4cu4pahpha1hcz6 0 331149 2822158 2822072 2026-08-15T00:03:51Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822158 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] bi7ssykt9lzxfqlmon5aqk50h47io96 2822159 2822158 2026-08-15T00:04:09Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822159 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] 5ayf39qdjqq43kt4e3jq17zjasgp38d 2822160 2822159 2026-08-15T00:04:29Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822160 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] qmaohg2iy1p6qte6irss7bx4vr7dzsj 2822197 2822160 2026-08-15T07:06:06Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822197 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The Relationship Between Empathy and Stringency of Punishment in Mock Jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] fdtgoso6009456bjrqnlm77mqxutgi0 2822198 2822197 2026-08-15T07:07:40Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822198 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= {{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}}} Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The Relationship Between Empathy and Stringency of Punishment in Mock Jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] ac8okg2ay7vzd0w72e9gz8tuxn1norr 2822200 2822198 2026-08-15T07:08:43Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822200 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The Relationship Between Empathy and Stringency of Punishment in Mock Jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] kyyii60n0ctzull28hecjzzenb75atu 2822201 2822200 2026-08-15T07:09:20Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822201 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] jytemb4hc00b8d3ullrulwuz25x7od1 2822203 2822201 2026-08-15T07:13:58Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Flaw0000231 This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] mau127tz82zomd5n6fcdheps83bnhdw 2822204 2822203 2026-08-15T07:16:22Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822204 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] 62ldidg0hr5yi404t50pbjd9k3oli38 2822206 2822204 2026-08-15T07:25:49Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2822206 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] tip6ul8cbkhs2f004o677795maa1216 2822241 2822206 2026-08-15T11:22:35Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822241 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and Jury Decision-Making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] grv9ppqbvpfrlx3gqah3pd6h7p7761y 0 331150 2822095 2026-08-14T12:43:48Z HawaSA 3106307 Created page with "{{subst:ME/BCS}}" 2822095 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 3l7ua3qoqx9oicc2i2sdqmslspjycv1 2822109 2822095 2026-08-14T15:15:11Z HawaSA 3106307 2822109 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 0jwrwbc5g1ewnex5mttwedfuybcdk54 2822110 2822109 2026-08-14T15:19:43Z HawaSA 3106307 2822110 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==insert heading title here== ==insert heading title here== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ==insert heading title here== ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] gno8n5dqo7dvrd01173u1hevl9ce861 2822155 2822110 2026-08-15T00:02:32Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Attachment]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822155 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==insert heading title here== ==insert heading title here== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ==insert heading title here== ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Attachment]] ol5r6450mmfcekpiwit1rtl383uuq55 2822157 2822155 2026-08-15T00:03:15Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relatedness]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822157 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation:<br> How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==insert heading title here== ==insert heading title here== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ===Attachment Style=== ==insert heading title here== ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Attachment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relatedness]] 9jxfkuwaeafjxbrobshp6qgx7bij32d 3 331152 2822098 2026-08-14T13:38:11Z MathXplore 2888076 advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2822098 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-08-14 == <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left" lang="en">[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Bestsapinstitute|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span> as a "soapbox"]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span>. Thanks. </div><!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1786714689238.8s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:38, 14 August 2026 (UTC) 9oeyawj0tn7p1lwgmrfdazd15d6c96q 6 331153 2822101 2026-08-14T14:09:26Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260814 - 20260813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822101 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B Single Level (20260814 - 20260813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} jdkubmcr588z4p4zef7hikfgbyoafr3 6 331154 2822102 2026-08-14T14:10:15Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260814 - 20260813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822102 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2C Multi-Level (20260814 - 20260813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} fbnnxffl4y5q65osgc58059huq87scw 6 331155 2822104 2026-08-14T14:17:05Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260814 - 20260813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822104 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20260814 - 20260813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 6qtoxxabmswnv7w500puyc2dki31y82 6 331156 2822106 2026-08-14T14:23:17Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260813 - 20260812) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822106 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Permutation 6C (20260813 - 20260812) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 2gscy1g5a6tk5307m5dofunqv5w49i5 2 331157 2822107 2026-08-14T15:12:26Z HawaSA 3106307 Created page with "== About Me == Hi! My name is Salma and I am in third year of [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2023 Bachelor of Science in Psychology]. === Interests === My personal interests are: * Crocheting and Sewing * Playing netball * Baking == Professional Work == Links to professional/academic stuff (linkedin?) == Book Chapter Topic == The book chapter I'm working on is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Attachment_styles_and_rel..." 2822107 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi! My name is Salma and I am in third year of [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2023 Bachelor of Science in Psychology]. === Interests === My personal interests are: * Crocheting and Sewing * Playing netball * Baking == Professional Work == Links to professional/academic stuff (linkedin?) == Book Chapter Topic == The book chapter I'm working on is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Attachment_styles_and_relatedness_motivation| Attachment styles and relatedness motivation] == Social Contribution == === Wikiversity === # time, date, brief overview of social contribution + link === Canvas === # time, date, brief overview of social contribution + link 86oqlvxoptydlsfgrezv0h6cx7oid2j 2822108 2822107 2026-08-14T15:13:36Z HawaSA 3106307 /* Book Chapter Topic */ 2822108 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi! My name is Salma and I am in third year of [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2023 Bachelor of Science in Psychology]. === Interests === My personal interests are: * Crocheting and Sewing * Playing netball * Baking == Professional Work == Links to professional/academic stuff (linkedin?) == Book Chapter Topic == The book chapter I'm working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation|Attachment styles and relatedness motivation]] == Social Contribution == === Wikiversity === # time, date, brief overview of social contribution + link === Canvas === # time, date, brief overview of social contribution + link ds7r9rvxf9712ew10j9dh8r6vhfm1yu 6 331159 2822114 2026-08-14T17:34:53Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260810 - 20260804) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822114 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260810 - 20260804) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 6tp87niwpm7x2y3hwk7ypnsr6m3av1z 6 331160 2822116 2026-08-14T17:35:48Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260811 - 20260810) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822116 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260811 - 20260810) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 59uzach1pgbxbes5asdmn0448t12rob 6 331161 2822118 2026-08-14T17:36:43Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260812 - 20260811) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2822118 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Work2.1A: Libraries (20260812 - 20260811) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-08-14 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 6pjxc4ipna6yjaeplpaqtm63yfr1p7u 1 331162 2822141 2026-08-14T22:58:03Z IanVG 2918363 /* Old thermo table, that I replaced */ new section 2822141 wikitext text/x-wiki == Old thermo table, that I replaced == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Absolute Pressure (bar) !Vaporization Point (Celsius) !Specific Volume (m^3/kg) !Density (steam) ! colspan="2" |Specific Enthalpy of Liquid Water (sensible heat) ! colspan="2" |Specific Enthalpy of Steam (total heat) (kJ/kg) ! colspan="2" |Latent Heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg) !Specific Heat ! style="vertical-align:middle;" |Absolute Pressure |- |(bar) |(oC) |(m3/kg) |(kg/m3) |(kJ/kg) |(kcal/kg) |(kJ/kg) |(kcal/kg) |(kJ/kg) |(kcal/kg) |(kJ/kg K) | style="vertical-align:middle;" |(bar) |- |0.02 |17.51 |67.006 |0.015 |73.45 |17.54 |2533.64 |605.15 |2460.19 |587.61 |1.8644 |0.02 |- |0.03 |24.1 |45.667 |0.022 |101 |24.12 |2545.64 |608.02 |2444.65 |583.89 |1.8694 |0.03 |- |0.04 |28.98 |34.802 |0.029 |121.41 |29 |2554.51 |610.13 |2433.1 |581.14 |1.8736 |0.04 |- |0.05 |32.9 |28.194 |0.035 |137.77 |32.91 |2561.59 |611.83 |2423.82 |578.92 |1.8774 |0.05 |- |0.06 |36.18 |23.741 |0.042 |151.5 |36.19 |2567.51 |613.24 |2416.01 |577.05 |1.8808 |0.06 |- |0.07 |39.02 |20.531 |0.049 |163.38 |39.02 |2572.62 |614.46 |2409.24 |575.44 |1.884 |0.07 |- |0.08 |41.53 |18.105 |0.055 |173.87 |41.53 |2577.11 |615.53 |2403.25 |574.01 |1.8871 |0.08 |- |0.09 |43.79 |16.204 |0.062 |183.28 |43.78 |2581.14 |616.49 |2397.85 |572.72 |1.8899 |0.09 |- |0.1 |45.83 |14.675 |0.068 |191.84 |45.82 |2584.78 |617.36 |2392.94 |571.54 |1.8927 |0.1 |- |0.2 |60.09 |7.65 |0.131 |251.46 |60.06 |2609.86 |623.35 |2358.4 |563.3 |1.9156 |0.2 |- |0.3 |69.13 |5.229 |0.191 |289.31 |69.1 |2625.43 |627.07 |2336.13 |557.97 |1.9343 |0.3 |- |0.4 |75.89 |3.993 |0.25 |317.65 |75.87 |2636.88 |629.81 |2319.23 |553.94 |1.9506 |0.4 |- |0.5 |81.35 |3.24 |0.309 |340.57 |81.34 |2645.99 |631.98 |2305.42 |550.64 |1.9654 |0.5 |- |0.6 |85.95 |2.732 |0.366 |359.93 |85.97 |2653.57 |633.79 |2293.64 |547.83 |1.979 |0.6 |- |0.7 |89.96 |2.365 |0.423 |376.77 |89.99 |2660.07 |635.35 |2283.3 |545.36 |1.9919 |0.7 |- |0.8 |93.51 |2.087 |0.479 |391.73 |93.56 |2665.77 |636.71 |2274.05 |543.15 |2.004 |0.8 |- |0.9 |96.71 |1.869 |0.535 |405.21 |96.78 |2670.85 |637.92 |2265.65 |541.14 |2.0156 |0.9 |- |1 1) |99.63 |1.694 |0.59 |417.51 |99.72 |2675.43 |639.02 |2257.92 |539.3 |2.0267 |1 1) |- |1.1 |102.32 |1.549 |0.645 |428.84 |102.43 |2679.61 |640.01 |2250.76 |537.59 |2.0373 |1.1 |- |1.2 |104.81 |1.428 |0.7 |439.36 |104.94 |2683.44 |640.93 |2244.08 |535.99 |2.0476 |1.2 |- |1.3 |107.13 |1.325 |0.755 |449.19 |107.29 |2686.98 |641.77 |2237.79 |534.49 |2.0576 |1.3 |- |1.4 |109.32 |1.236 |0.809 |458.42 |109.49 |2690.28 |642.56 |2231.86 |533.07 |2.0673 |1.4 |- |1.5 |111.37 |1.159 |0.863 |467.13 |111.57 |2693.36 |643.3 |2226.23 |531.73 |2.0768 |1.5 |- |1.6 |113.32 |1.091 |0.916 |475.38 |113.54 |2696.25 |643.99 |2220.87 |530.45 |2.086 |1.6 |- |1.7 |115.17 |1.031 |0.97 |483.22 |115.42 |2698.97 |644.64 |2215.75 |529.22 |2.095 |1.7 |- |1.8 |116.93 |0.977 |1.023 |490.7 |117.2 |2701.54 |645.25 |2210.84 |528.05 |2.1037 |1.8 |- |1.9 |118.62 |0.929 |1.076 |497.85 |118.91 |2703.98 |645.83 |2206.13 |526.92 |2.1124 |1.9 |- |2 |120.23 |0.885 |1.129 |504.71 |120.55 |2706.29 |646.39 |2201.59 |525.84 |2.1208 |2 |- |2.2 |123.27 |0.81 |1.235 |517.63 |123.63 |2710.6 |647.42 |2192.98 |523.78 |2.1372 |2.2 |- |2.4 |126.09 |0.746 |1.34 |529.64 |126.5 |2714.55 |648.36 |2184.91 |521.86 |2.1531 |2.4 |- |2.6 |128.73 |0.693 |1.444 |540.88 |129.19 |2718.17 |649.22 |2177.3 |520.04 |2.1685 |2.6 |- |2.8 |131.2 |0.646 |1.548 |551.45 |131.71 |2721.54 |650.03 |2170.08 |518.32 |2.1835 |2.8 |- |3 |133.54 |0.606 |1.651 |561.44 |134.1 |2724.66 |650.77 |2163.22 |516.68 |2.1981 |3 |- |3.5 |138.87 |0.524 |1.908 |584.28 |139.55 |2731.63 |652.44 |2147.35 |512.89 |2.2331 |3.5 |- |4 |143.63 |0.462 |2.163 |604.68 |144.43 |2737.63 |653.87 |2132.95 |509.45 |2.2664 |4 |- |4.5 |147.92 |0.414 |2.417 |623.17 |148.84 |2742.88 |655.13 |2119.71 |506.29 |2.2983 |4.5 |- |5 |151.85 |0.375 |2.669 |640.12 |152.89 |2747.54 |656.24 |2107.42 |503.35 |2.3289 |5 |- |5.5 |155.47 |0.342 |2.92 |655.81 |156.64 |2751.7 |657.23 |2095.9 |500.6 |2.3585 |5.5 |- |6 |158.84 |0.315 |3.17 |670.43 |160.13 |2755.46 |658.13 |2085.03 |498 |2.3873 |6 |- |6.5 |161.99 |0.292 |3.419 |684.14 |163.4 |2758.87 |658.94 |2074.73 |495.54 |2.4152 |6.5 |- |7 |164.96 |0.273 |3.667 |697.07 |166.49 |2761.98 |659.69 |2064.92 |493.2 |2.4424 |7 |- |7.5 |167.76 |0.255 |3.915 |709.3 |169.41 |2764.84 |660.37 |2055.53 |490.96 |2.469 |7.5 |- |8 |170.42 |0.24 |4.162 |720.94 |172.19 |2767.46 |661 |2046.53 |488.8 |2.4951 |8 |- |8.5 |172.94 |0.227 |4.409 |732.03 |174.84 |2769.89 |661.58 |2037.86 |486.73 |2.5206 |8.5 |- |9 |175.36 |0.215 |4.655 |742.64 |177.38 |2772.13 |662.11 |2029.49 |484.74 |2.5456 |9 |- |9.5 |177.67 |0.204 |4.901 |752.82 |179.81 |2774.22 |662.61 |2021.4 |482.8 |2.5702 |9.5 |- |10 |179.88 |0.194 |5.147 |762.6 |182.14 |2776.16 |663.07 |2013.56 |480.93 |2.5944 |10 |- |11 |184.06 |0.177 |5.638 |781.11 |186.57 |2779.66 |663.91 |1998.55 |477.35 |2.6418 |11 |- |12 |187.96 |0.163 |6.127 |798.42 |190.7 |2782.73 |664.64 |1984.31 |473.94 |2.6878 |12 |- |13 |191.6 |0.151 |6.617 |814.68 |194.58 |2785.42 |665.29 |1970.73 |470.7 |2.7327 |13 |- |14 |195.04 |0.141 |7.106 |830.05 |198.26 |2787.79 |665.85 |1957.73 |467.6 |2.7767 |14 |- |15 |198.28 |0.132 |7.596 |844.64 |201.74 |2789.88 |666.35 |1945.24 |464.61 |2.8197 |15 |- |16 |201.37 |0.124 |8.085 |858.54 |205.06 |2791.73 |666.79 |1933.19 |461.74 |2.862 |16 |- |17 |204.3 |0.117 |8.575 |871.82 |208.23 |2793.37 |667.18 |1921.55 |458.95 |2.9036 |17 |- |18 |207.11 |0.11 |9.065 |884.55 |211.27 |2794.81 |667.53 |1910.27 |456.26 |2.9445 |18 |- |19 |209.79 |0.105 |9.556 |896.78 |214.19 |2796.09 |667.83 |1899.31 |453.64 |2.9849 |19 |- |20 |212.37 |0.1 |10.047 |908.56 |217.01 |2797.21 |668.1 |1888.65 |451.1 |3.0248 |20 |- |21 |214.85 |0.095 |10.539 |919.93 |219.72 |2798.18 |668.33 |1878.25 |448.61 |3.0643 |21 |- |22 |217.24 |0.091 |11.032 |930.92 |222.35 |2799.03 |668.54 |1868.11 |446.19 |3.1034 |22 |- |23 |219.55 |0.087 |11.525 |941.57 |224.89 |2799.77 |668.71 |1858.2 |443.82 |3.1421 |23 |- |24 |221.78 |0.083 |12.02 |951.9 |227.36 |2800.39 |668.86 |1848.49 |441.5 |3.1805 |24 |- |25 |223.94 |0.08 |12.515 |961.93 |229.75 |2800.91 |668.99 |1838.98 |439.23 |3.2187 |25 |- |26 |226.03 |0.077 |13.012 |971.69 |232.08 |2801.35 |669.09 |1829.66 |437.01 |3.2567 |26 |- |27 |228.06 |0.074 |13.509 |981.19 |234.35 |2801.69 |669.17 |1820.5 |434.82 |3.2944 |27 |- |28 |230.04 |0.071 |14.008 |990.46 |236.57 |2801.96 |669.24 |1811.5 |432.67 |3.332 |28 |- |29 |231.96 |0.069 |14.508 |999.5 |238.73 |2802.15 |669.28 |1802.65 |430.56 |3.3695 |29 |- |30 |233.84 |0.067 |15.009 |1008.33 |240.84 |2802.27 |669.31 |1793.94 |428.48 |3.4069 |30 |} <ref>Olivier Cleynen, Engineering Thermodynamics, 2025. ISBN 9781446710067, thermodynamicsbook.com</ref> <ref>The Engineering ToolBox (2003). Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Steam: Data & Charts in Bar. [online] Available at: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/saturated-steam-properties-d_457.html 2025-09-30.</ref> <references /> [[User:IanVG|IanVG]] ([[User talk:IanVG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/IanVG|contribs]]) 22:58, 14 August 2026 (UTC) ihg6n8z93bnzx3yajk0oywk0ncih9sf 0 331163 2822143 2026-08-14T22:59:14Z IanVG 2918363 Created page with "[[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]]" 2822143 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] 2k11wg7tfre51rg4rdp6d09za4q9tsw 2822144 2822143 2026-08-14T22:59:48Z IanVG 2918363 2822144 wikitext text/x-wiki Eventually, this page should host internal links to a select group of useful tables that students can use while solving thermodynamics problems. [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] 3y9cu2y0p425wdwgz6v4bqqte37aoym 2822145 2822144 2026-08-14T23:02:51Z IanVG 2918363 IanVG moved page [[Thermodynamics/Tables/]] to [[Thermodynamics/Tables]]: I screwed up and left a slash in the name of the page! 2822144 wikitext text/x-wiki Eventually, this page should host internal links to a select group of useful tables that students can use while solving thermodynamics problems. [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] 3y9cu2y0p425wdwgz6v4bqqte37aoym 2822184 2822145 2026-08-15T05:21:56Z MathXplore 2888076 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 2822184 wikitext text/x-wiki Eventually, this page should host internal links to a select group of useful tables that students can use while solving thermodynamics problems. [[Thermodynamics/Tables/Saturated Steam - Properties v.s. Pressure - Bar]] {{BookCat}} 5bg7c9nf8o3uljpvmwjo5d2vpqxca5q 0 331165 2822148 2026-08-14T23:07:13Z IanVG 2918363 added saturated steam table, temperature dependent 2822148 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Saturated water and steam properties as a function of temperature !Saturation temperature (°C) !Saturation pressure (bar abs.) !Liquid specific volume, v_f (m³/kg) !Vapor specific volume, v_g (m³/kg) !Liquid density, ρ_f (kg/m³) !Vapor density, ρ_g (kg/m³) !Liquid internal energy, u_f (kJ/kg) !Vapor internal energy, u_g (kJ/kg) !Internal energy of vaporization, u_fg (kJ/kg) !Liquid enthalpy, h_f (kJ/kg) !Vapor enthalpy, h_g (kJ/kg) !Enthalpy of vaporization, h_fg (kJ/kg) !Liquid entropy, s_f (kJ/(kg·K)) !Vapor entropy, s_g (kJ/(kg·K)) !Entropy of vaporization, s_fg (kJ/(kg·K)) |- |0.01 |0.00611655 |0.001000 |205.991225 |999.793 |0.004855 | -0.00 |2374.92 |2374.92 |0.00 |2500.92 |2500.91 | -0.0000 |9.1555 |9.1555 |- |5 |0.00872575 |0.001000 |147.011337 |999.917 |0.006802 |21.02 |2381.78 |2360.76 |21.02 |2510.06 |2489.04 |0.0763 |9.0248 |8.9486 |- |10 |0.012282 |0.001000 |106.303229 |999.655 |0.009407 |42.02 |2388.65 |2346.63 |42.02 |2519.21 |2477.19 |0.1511 |8.8998 |8.7487 |- |15 |0.0170579 |0.001001 |77.875465 |999.056 |0.012841 |62.98 |2395.49 |2332.51 |62.98 |2528.33 |2465.35 |0.2245 |8.7803 |8.5558 |- |20 |0.0233932 |0.001002 |57.756701 |998.162 |0.017314 |83.91 |2402.32 |2318.41 |83.91 |2537.43 |2453.52 |0.2965 |8.6660 |8.3695 |- |25 |0.0316993 |0.001003 |43.337313 |997.003 |0.023075 |104.83 |2409.13 |2304.30 |104.83 |2546.51 |2441.68 |0.3672 |8.5566 |8.1894 |- |30 |0.0424697 |0.001004 |32.878285 |995.606 |0.030415 |125.73 |2415.91 |2290.18 |125.73 |2555.55 |2429.81 |0.4368 |8.4520 |8.0152 |- |35 |0.0562902 |0.001006 |25.205265 |993.991 |0.039674 |146.63 |2422.67 |2276.04 |146.63 |2564.55 |2417.91 |0.5051 |8.3517 |7.8466 |- |40 |0.0738494 |0.001008 |19.515144 |992.175 |0.051242 |167.53 |2429.39 |2261.87 |167.53 |2573.51 |2405.98 |0.5724 |8.2555 |7.6831 |- |45 |0.09595 |0.001010 |15.252072 |990.173 |0.065565 |188.43 |2436.08 |2247.66 |188.43 |2582.43 |2393.99 |0.6386 |8.1633 |7.5247 |- |50 |0.123519 |0.001012 |12.026915 |987.996 |0.083147 |209.33 |2442.73 |2233.40 |209.34 |2591.29 |2381.95 |0.7038 |8.0748 |7.3710 |- |55 |0.157621 |0.001015 |9.564278 |985.656 |0.104556 |230.24 |2449.34 |2219.10 |230.26 |2600.09 |2369.84 |0.7680 |7.9898 |7.2218 |- |60 |0.199464 |0.001017 |7.667229 |983.160 |0.130425 |251.16 |2455.90 |2204.74 |251.18 |2608.83 |2357.65 |0.8313 |7.9081 |7.0769 |- |65 |0.250416 |0.001020 |6.193545 |980.517 |0.161458 |272.09 |2462.41 |2190.32 |272.12 |2617.50 |2345.39 |0.8937 |7.8296 |6.9359 |- |70 |0.312009 |0.001023 |5.039542 |977.734 |0.198431 |293.03 |2468.86 |2175.82 |293.07 |2626.10 |2333.03 |0.9551 |7.7540 |6.7989 |- |75 |0.385954 |0.001026 |4.128945 |974.815 |0.242193 |313.99 |2475.24 |2161.25 |314.03 |2634.60 |2320.57 |1.0158 |7.6812 |6.6654 |- |80 |0.474145 |0.001029 |3.405158 |971.766 |0.293672 |334.96 |2481.56 |2146.60 |335.01 |2643.02 |2308.00 |1.0756 |7.6111 |6.5355 |- |85 |0.57867 |0.001032 |2.825839 |968.592 |0.353877 |355.95 |2487.81 |2131.85 |356.01 |2651.33 |2295.31 |1.1346 |7.5434 |6.4088 |- |90 |0.701818 |0.001036 |2.359058 |965.295 |0.423898 |376.97 |2493.97 |2117.00 |377.04 |2659.53 |2282.49 |1.1929 |7.4781 |6.2853 |- |95 |0.846085 |0.001040 |1.980556 |961.880 |0.504909 |398.00 |2500.04 |2102.04 |398.09 |2667.61 |2269.52 |1.2504 |7.4151 |6.1647 |- |100 |1.01418 |0.001043 |1.671766 |958.349 |0.598170 |419.06 |2506.02 |2086.96 |419.17 |2675.57 |2256.40 |1.3072 |7.3541 |6.0469 |- |105 |1.20903 |0.001047 |1.418379 |954.704 |0.705030 |440.15 |2511.90 |2071.76 |440.27 |2683.39 |2243.12 |1.3633 |7.2952 |5.9318 |- |110 |1.43379 |0.001052 |1.209293 |950.948 |0.826930 |461.26 |2517.67 |2056.41 |461.42 |2691.06 |2229.65 |1.4188 |7.2381 |5.8193 |- |115 |1.69182 |0.001056 |1.035841 |947.082 |0.965400 |482.41 |2523.33 |2040.92 |482.59 |2698.58 |2215.98 |1.4737 |7.1828 |5.7091 |- |120 |1.98674 |0.001060 |0.891212 |943.107 |1.122067 |503.60 |2528.86 |2025.26 |503.81 |2705.93 |2202.11 |1.5279 |7.1291 |5.6012 |- |125 |2.32238 |0.001065 |0.770026 |939.024 |1.298657 |524.83 |2534.27 |2009.44 |525.07 |2713.10 |2188.02 |1.5816 |7.0770 |5.4955 |- |130 |2.7028 |0.001070 |0.668004 |934.834 |1.496996 |546.09 |2539.53 |1993.44 |546.38 |2720.08 |2173.70 |1.6346 |7.0264 |5.3918 |- |135 |3.13229 |0.001075 |0.581729 |930.537 |1.719013 |567.41 |2544.65 |1977.24 |567.74 |2726.87 |2159.12 |1.6872 |6.9772 |5.2900 |- |140 |3.61539 |0.001080 |0.508454 |926.134 |1.966745 |588.77 |2549.62 |1960.85 |589.16 |2733.44 |2144.28 |1.7392 |6.9293 |5.1901 |- |145 |4.15685 |0.001085 |0.445962 |921.625 |2.242344 |610.19 |2554.42 |1944.23 |610.64 |2739.80 |2129.16 |1.7907 |6.8826 |5.0919 |- |150 |4.76165 |0.001091 |0.392453 |917.008 |2.548077 |631.66 |2559.05 |1927.39 |632.18 |2745.93 |2113.75 |1.8418 |6.8371 |4.9953 |- |155 |5.435 |0.001096 |0.346460 |912.283 |2.886337 |653.19 |2563.51 |1910.32 |653.79 |2751.81 |2098.02 |1.8924 |6.7926 |4.9002 |- |160 |6.18235 |0.001102 |0.306782 |907.450 |3.259644 |674.79 |2567.78 |1892.99 |675.47 |2757.44 |2081.97 |1.9426 |6.7491 |4.8066 |- |165 |7.00934 |0.001108 |0.272431 |902.506 |3.670660 |696.46 |2571.85 |1875.39 |697.24 |2762.81 |2065.57 |1.9923 |6.7066 |4.7143 |- |170 |7.92187 |0.001114 |0.242589 |897.451 |4.122193 |718.20 |2575.73 |1857.52 |719.08 |2767.90 |2048.82 |2.0417 |6.6650 |4.6233 |- |175 |8.92602 |0.001121 |0.216581 |892.283 |4.617206 |740.02 |2579.39 |1839.37 |741.02 |2772.71 |2031.69 |2.0906 |6.6241 |4.5335 |- |180 |10.0281 |0.001127 |0.193842 |886.999 |5.158836 |761.92 |2582.83 |1820.90 |763.05 |2777.21 |2014.16 |2.1392 |6.5840 |4.4448 |- |185 |11.2346 |0.001134 |0.173901 |881.598 |5.750401 |783.91 |2586.04 |1802.13 |785.19 |2781.41 |1996.22 |2.1875 |6.5447 |4.3571 |- |190 |12.5524 |0.001141 |0.156362 |876.076 |6.395419 |806.00 |2589.01 |1783.01 |807.43 |2785.28 |1977.85 |2.2355 |6.5059 |4.2704 |- |195 |13.9882 |0.001149 |0.140892 |870.430 |7.097625 |828.18 |2591.74 |1763.55 |829.79 |2788.82 |1959.03 |2.2832 |6.4678 |4.1846 |- |200 |15.5493 |0.001157 |0.127210 |864.658 |7.860995 |850.47 |2594.20 |1743.73 |852.27 |2792.01 |1939.74 |2.3305 |6.4302 |4.0996 |- |205 |17.243 |0.001164 |0.115078 |858.755 |8.689765 |872.87 |2596.40 |1723.53 |874.88 |2794.83 |1919.95 |2.3777 |6.3930 |4.0154 |- |210 |19.0767 |0.001173 |0.104292 |852.718 |9.588466 |895.39 |2598.31 |1702.92 |897.63 |2797.27 |1899.64 |2.4245 |6.3563 |3.9318 |- |215 |21.0584 |0.001181 |0.094679 |846.541 |10.561950 |918.04 |2599.94 |1681.90 |920.53 |2799.32 |1878.79 |2.4712 |6.3200 |3.8488 |- |220 |23.1959 |0.001190 |0.086092 |840.219 |11.615433 |940.82 |2601.25 |1660.43 |943.58 |2800.95 |1857.37 |2.5177 |6.2840 |3.7663 |- |225 |25.4972 |0.001199 |0.078403 |833.747 |12.754536 |963.74 |2602.24 |1638.50 |966.80 |2802.15 |1835.35 |2.5640 |6.2483 |3.6843 |- |230 |27.9709 |0.001209 |0.071503 |827.119 |13.985339 |986.81 |2602.90 |1616.09 |990.19 |2802.90 |1812.71 |2.6101 |6.2128 |3.6027 |- |235 |30.6253 |0.001219 |0.065298 |820.328 |15.314438 |1010.04 |2603.20 |1593.16 |1013.77 |2803.17 |1789.40 |2.6561 |6.1775 |3.5214 |- |240 |33.4693 |0.001229 |0.059705 |813.366 |16.749019 |1033.44 |2603.13 |1569.69 |1037.55 |2802.96 |1765.40 |2.7020 |6.1423 |3.4403 |- |245 |36.5117 |0.001240 |0.054654 |806.224 |18.296943 |1057.02 |2602.67 |1545.65 |1061.55 |2802.22 |1740.67 |2.7478 |6.1072 |3.3594 |- |250 |39.7617 |0.001252 |0.050083 |798.894 |19.966840 |1080.79 |2601.79 |1521.00 |1085.77 |2800.93 |1715.17 |2.7935 |6.0721 |3.2785 |- |255 |43.2289 |0.001264 |0.045938 |791.365 |21.768239 |1104.77 |2600.49 |1495.72 |1110.23 |2799.07 |1688.84 |2.8392 |6.0369 |3.1977 |- |260 |46.9226 |0.001276 |0.042173 |783.626 |23.711700 |1128.97 |2598.72 |1469.75 |1134.96 |2796.60 |1661.65 |2.8849 |6.0016 |3.1167 |- |265 |50.8529 |0.001289 |0.038746 |775.663 |25.809000 |1153.41 |2596.45 |1443.05 |1159.96 |2793.49 |1633.53 |2.9307 |5.9661 |3.0354 |- |270 |55.0299 |0.001303 |0.035621 |767.461 |28.073336 |1178.10 |2593.67 |1415.57 |1185.27 |2789.69 |1604.42 |2.9765 |5.9304 |2.9539 |- |275 |59.4639 |0.001318 |0.032766 |759.005 |30.519594 |1203.07 |2590.33 |1387.26 |1210.90 |2785.17 |1574.27 |3.0224 |5.8944 |2.8720 |- |280 |64.1658 |0.001333 |0.030153 |750.275 |33.164674 |1228.33 |2586.39 |1358.06 |1236.88 |2779.87 |1542.98 |3.0685 |5.8579 |2.7894 |- |285 |69.1466 |0.001349 |0.027756 |741.250 |36.027894 |1253.92 |2581.81 |1327.88 |1263.25 |2773.73 |1510.48 |3.1147 |5.8209 |2.7062 |- |290 |74.4178 |0.001366 |0.025555 |731.905 |39.131513 |1279.86 |2576.53 |1296.66 |1290.03 |2766.70 |1476.67 |3.1612 |5.7834 |2.6222 |- |295 |79.9911 |0.001385 |0.023529 |722.212 |42.501390 |1306.19 |2570.49 |1264.30 |1317.27 |2758.70 |1441.43 |3.2080 |5.7451 |2.5371 |- |300 |85.879 |0.001404 |0.021660 |712.136 |46.167850 |1332.95 |2563.62 |1230.68 |1345.01 |2749.64 |1404.63 |3.2552 |5.7059 |2.4507 |- |305 |92.0943 |0.001425 |0.019933 |701.638 |50.166820 |1360.18 |2555.85 |1195.67 |1373.30 |2739.43 |1366.12 |3.3028 |5.6657 |2.3629 |- |310 |98.6505 |0.001448 |0.018335 |690.672 |54.541362 |1387.93 |2547.07 |1159.14 |1402.22 |2727.95 |1325.73 |3.3510 |5.6244 |2.2734 |- |315 |105.562 |0.001472 |0.016851 |679.180 |59.343755 |1416.28 |2537.17 |1120.89 |1431.83 |2715.05 |1283.23 |3.3998 |5.5816 |2.1818 |- |320 |112.843 |0.001499 |0.015471 |667.094 |64.638432 |1445.31 |2526.01 |1080.70 |1462.22 |2700.59 |1238.36 |3.4494 |5.5372 |2.0878 |- |325 |120.51 |0.001528 |0.014183 |654.328 |70.506188 |1475.11 |2513.41 |1038.30 |1493.52 |2684.33 |1190.81 |3.5000 |5.4908 |1.9908 |- |330 |128.581 |0.001561 |0.012979 |640.773 |77.050426 |1505.80 |2499.15 |993.35 |1525.87 |2666.03 |1140.16 |3.5518 |5.4422 |1.8903 |- |335 |137.073 |0.001597 |0.011847 |626.286 |84.406799 |1537.56 |2482.96 |945.39 |1559.45 |2645.35 |1085.90 |3.6050 |5.3906 |1.7856 |- |340 |146.007 |0.001638 |0.010781 |610.668 |92.758783 |1570.62 |2464.44 |893.82 |1594.53 |2621.85 |1027.32 |3.6601 |5.3356 |1.6755 |- |345 |155.406 |0.001685 |0.009769 |593.627 |102.364384 |1605.30 |2443.09 |837.79 |1631.48 |2594.90 |963.42 |3.7176 |5.2762 |1.5586 |- |350 |165.294 |0.001740 |0.008802 |574.707 |113.605611 |1642.13 |2418.14 |776.01 |1670.89 |2563.64 |892.75 |3.7784 |5.2110 |1.4326 |- |355 |175.701 |0.001808 |0.007868 |553.140 |127.090400 |1681.96 |2388.40 |706.44 |1713.72 |2526.65 |812.93 |3.8439 |5.1380 |1.2942 |- |360 |186.66 |0.001895 |0.006949 |527.592 |143.898411 |1726.28 |2351.78 |625.49 |1761.66 |2481.49 |719.83 |3.9167 |5.0536 |1.1369 |- |365 |198.214 |0.002017 |0.006012 |495.740 |166.347071 |1777.79 |2303.79 |526.00 |1817.77 |2422.95 |605.18 |4.0014 |4.9497 |0.9483 |- |370 |210.436 |0.002215 |0.004954 |451.426 |201.839316 |1844.07 |2230.26 |386.19 |1890.69 |2334.52 |443.83 |4.1112 |4.8012 |0.6901 |} ''Calculation note:'' Values were generated with [https://coolprop.org/ CoolProp 8.0.0] using the HEOS water model. Pressure is absolute; saturated liquid uses quality Q = 0 and saturated vapor uses Q = 1. For tables containing kcal, 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ. aytaobbquvnekmejjfn0w95btzodysz 2822185 2822148 2026-08-15T05:22:00Z MathXplore 2888076 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 2822185 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Saturated water and steam properties as a function of temperature !Saturation temperature (°C) !Saturation pressure (bar abs.) !Liquid specific volume, v_f (m³/kg) !Vapor specific volume, v_g (m³/kg) !Liquid density, ρ_f (kg/m³) !Vapor density, ρ_g (kg/m³) !Liquid internal energy, u_f (kJ/kg) !Vapor internal energy, u_g (kJ/kg) !Internal energy of vaporization, u_fg (kJ/kg) !Liquid enthalpy, h_f (kJ/kg) !Vapor enthalpy, h_g (kJ/kg) !Enthalpy of vaporization, h_fg (kJ/kg) !Liquid entropy, s_f (kJ/(kg·K)) !Vapor entropy, s_g (kJ/(kg·K)) !Entropy of vaporization, s_fg (kJ/(kg·K)) |- |0.01 |0.00611655 |0.001000 |205.991225 |999.793 |0.004855 | -0.00 |2374.92 |2374.92 |0.00 |2500.92 |2500.91 | -0.0000 |9.1555 |9.1555 |- |5 |0.00872575 |0.001000 |147.011337 |999.917 |0.006802 |21.02 |2381.78 |2360.76 |21.02 |2510.06 |2489.04 |0.0763 |9.0248 |8.9486 |- |10 |0.012282 |0.001000 |106.303229 |999.655 |0.009407 |42.02 |2388.65 |2346.63 |42.02 |2519.21 |2477.19 |0.1511 |8.8998 |8.7487 |- |15 |0.0170579 |0.001001 |77.875465 |999.056 |0.012841 |62.98 |2395.49 |2332.51 |62.98 |2528.33 |2465.35 |0.2245 |8.7803 |8.5558 |- |20 |0.0233932 |0.001002 |57.756701 |998.162 |0.017314 |83.91 |2402.32 |2318.41 |83.91 |2537.43 |2453.52 |0.2965 |8.6660 |8.3695 |- |25 |0.0316993 |0.001003 |43.337313 |997.003 |0.023075 |104.83 |2409.13 |2304.30 |104.83 |2546.51 |2441.68 |0.3672 |8.5566 |8.1894 |- |30 |0.0424697 |0.001004 |32.878285 |995.606 |0.030415 |125.73 |2415.91 |2290.18 |125.73 |2555.55 |2429.81 |0.4368 |8.4520 |8.0152 |- |35 |0.0562902 |0.001006 |25.205265 |993.991 |0.039674 |146.63 |2422.67 |2276.04 |146.63 |2564.55 |2417.91 |0.5051 |8.3517 |7.8466 |- |40 |0.0738494 |0.001008 |19.515144 |992.175 |0.051242 |167.53 |2429.39 |2261.87 |167.53 |2573.51 |2405.98 |0.5724 |8.2555 |7.6831 |- |45 |0.09595 |0.001010 |15.252072 |990.173 |0.065565 |188.43 |2436.08 |2247.66 |188.43 |2582.43 |2393.99 |0.6386 |8.1633 |7.5247 |- |50 |0.123519 |0.001012 |12.026915 |987.996 |0.083147 |209.33 |2442.73 |2233.40 |209.34 |2591.29 |2381.95 |0.7038 |8.0748 |7.3710 |- |55 |0.157621 |0.001015 |9.564278 |985.656 |0.104556 |230.24 |2449.34 |2219.10 |230.26 |2600.09 |2369.84 |0.7680 |7.9898 |7.2218 |- |60 |0.199464 |0.001017 |7.667229 |983.160 |0.130425 |251.16 |2455.90 |2204.74 |251.18 |2608.83 |2357.65 |0.8313 |7.9081 |7.0769 |- |65 |0.250416 |0.001020 |6.193545 |980.517 |0.161458 |272.09 |2462.41 |2190.32 |272.12 |2617.50 |2345.39 |0.8937 |7.8296 |6.9359 |- |70 |0.312009 |0.001023 |5.039542 |977.734 |0.198431 |293.03 |2468.86 |2175.82 |293.07 |2626.10 |2333.03 |0.9551 |7.7540 |6.7989 |- |75 |0.385954 |0.001026 |4.128945 |974.815 |0.242193 |313.99 |2475.24 |2161.25 |314.03 |2634.60 |2320.57 |1.0158 |7.6812 |6.6654 |- |80 |0.474145 |0.001029 |3.405158 |971.766 |0.293672 |334.96 |2481.56 |2146.60 |335.01 |2643.02 |2308.00 |1.0756 |7.6111 |6.5355 |- |85 |0.57867 |0.001032 |2.825839 |968.592 |0.353877 |355.95 |2487.81 |2131.85 |356.01 |2651.33 |2295.31 |1.1346 |7.5434 |6.4088 |- |90 |0.701818 |0.001036 |2.359058 |965.295 |0.423898 |376.97 |2493.97 |2117.00 |377.04 |2659.53 |2282.49 |1.1929 |7.4781 |6.2853 |- |95 |0.846085 |0.001040 |1.980556 |961.880 |0.504909 |398.00 |2500.04 |2102.04 |398.09 |2667.61 |2269.52 |1.2504 |7.4151 |6.1647 |- |100 |1.01418 |0.001043 |1.671766 |958.349 |0.598170 |419.06 |2506.02 |2086.96 |419.17 |2675.57 |2256.40 |1.3072 |7.3541 |6.0469 |- |105 |1.20903 |0.001047 |1.418379 |954.704 |0.705030 |440.15 |2511.90 |2071.76 |440.27 |2683.39 |2243.12 |1.3633 |7.2952 |5.9318 |- |110 |1.43379 |0.001052 |1.209293 |950.948 |0.826930 |461.26 |2517.67 |2056.41 |461.42 |2691.06 |2229.65 |1.4188 |7.2381 |5.8193 |- |115 |1.69182 |0.001056 |1.035841 |947.082 |0.965400 |482.41 |2523.33 |2040.92 |482.59 |2698.58 |2215.98 |1.4737 |7.1828 |5.7091 |- |120 |1.98674 |0.001060 |0.891212 |943.107 |1.122067 |503.60 |2528.86 |2025.26 |503.81 |2705.93 |2202.11 |1.5279 |7.1291 |5.6012 |- |125 |2.32238 |0.001065 |0.770026 |939.024 |1.298657 |524.83 |2534.27 |2009.44 |525.07 |2713.10 |2188.02 |1.5816 |7.0770 |5.4955 |- |130 |2.7028 |0.001070 |0.668004 |934.834 |1.496996 |546.09 |2539.53 |1993.44 |546.38 |2720.08 |2173.70 |1.6346 |7.0264 |5.3918 |- |135 |3.13229 |0.001075 |0.581729 |930.537 |1.719013 |567.41 |2544.65 |1977.24 |567.74 |2726.87 |2159.12 |1.6872 |6.9772 |5.2900 |- |140 |3.61539 |0.001080 |0.508454 |926.134 |1.966745 |588.77 |2549.62 |1960.85 |589.16 |2733.44 |2144.28 |1.7392 |6.9293 |5.1901 |- |145 |4.15685 |0.001085 |0.445962 |921.625 |2.242344 |610.19 |2554.42 |1944.23 |610.64 |2739.80 |2129.16 |1.7907 |6.8826 |5.0919 |- |150 |4.76165 |0.001091 |0.392453 |917.008 |2.548077 |631.66 |2559.05 |1927.39 |632.18 |2745.93 |2113.75 |1.8418 |6.8371 |4.9953 |- |155 |5.435 |0.001096 |0.346460 |912.283 |2.886337 |653.19 |2563.51 |1910.32 |653.79 |2751.81 |2098.02 |1.8924 |6.7926 |4.9002 |- |160 |6.18235 |0.001102 |0.306782 |907.450 |3.259644 |674.79 |2567.78 |1892.99 |675.47 |2757.44 |2081.97 |1.9426 |6.7491 |4.8066 |- |165 |7.00934 |0.001108 |0.272431 |902.506 |3.670660 |696.46 |2571.85 |1875.39 |697.24 |2762.81 |2065.57 |1.9923 |6.7066 |4.7143 |- |170 |7.92187 |0.001114 |0.242589 |897.451 |4.122193 |718.20 |2575.73 |1857.52 |719.08 |2767.90 |2048.82 |2.0417 |6.6650 |4.6233 |- |175 |8.92602 |0.001121 |0.216581 |892.283 |4.617206 |740.02 |2579.39 |1839.37 |741.02 |2772.71 |2031.69 |2.0906 |6.6241 |4.5335 |- |180 |10.0281 |0.001127 |0.193842 |886.999 |5.158836 |761.92 |2582.83 |1820.90 |763.05 |2777.21 |2014.16 |2.1392 |6.5840 |4.4448 |- |185 |11.2346 |0.001134 |0.173901 |881.598 |5.750401 |783.91 |2586.04 |1802.13 |785.19 |2781.41 |1996.22 |2.1875 |6.5447 |4.3571 |- |190 |12.5524 |0.001141 |0.156362 |876.076 |6.395419 |806.00 |2589.01 |1783.01 |807.43 |2785.28 |1977.85 |2.2355 |6.5059 |4.2704 |- |195 |13.9882 |0.001149 |0.140892 |870.430 |7.097625 |828.18 |2591.74 |1763.55 |829.79 |2788.82 |1959.03 |2.2832 |6.4678 |4.1846 |- |200 |15.5493 |0.001157 |0.127210 |864.658 |7.860995 |850.47 |2594.20 |1743.73 |852.27 |2792.01 |1939.74 |2.3305 |6.4302 |4.0996 |- |205 |17.243 |0.001164 |0.115078 |858.755 |8.689765 |872.87 |2596.40 |1723.53 |874.88 |2794.83 |1919.95 |2.3777 |6.3930 |4.0154 |- |210 |19.0767 |0.001173 |0.104292 |852.718 |9.588466 |895.39 |2598.31 |1702.92 |897.63 |2797.27 |1899.64 |2.4245 |6.3563 |3.9318 |- |215 |21.0584 |0.001181 |0.094679 |846.541 |10.561950 |918.04 |2599.94 |1681.90 |920.53 |2799.32 |1878.79 |2.4712 |6.3200 |3.8488 |- |220 |23.1959 |0.001190 |0.086092 |840.219 |11.615433 |940.82 |2601.25 |1660.43 |943.58 |2800.95 |1857.37 |2.5177 |6.2840 |3.7663 |- |225 |25.4972 |0.001199 |0.078403 |833.747 |12.754536 |963.74 |2602.24 |1638.50 |966.80 |2802.15 |1835.35 |2.5640 |6.2483 |3.6843 |- |230 |27.9709 |0.001209 |0.071503 |827.119 |13.985339 |986.81 |2602.90 |1616.09 |990.19 |2802.90 |1812.71 |2.6101 |6.2128 |3.6027 |- |235 |30.6253 |0.001219 |0.065298 |820.328 |15.314438 |1010.04 |2603.20 |1593.16 |1013.77 |2803.17 |1789.40 |2.6561 |6.1775 |3.5214 |- |240 |33.4693 |0.001229 |0.059705 |813.366 |16.749019 |1033.44 |2603.13 |1569.69 |1037.55 |2802.96 |1765.40 |2.7020 |6.1423 |3.4403 |- |245 |36.5117 |0.001240 |0.054654 |806.224 |18.296943 |1057.02 |2602.67 |1545.65 |1061.55 |2802.22 |1740.67 |2.7478 |6.1072 |3.3594 |- |250 |39.7617 |0.001252 |0.050083 |798.894 |19.966840 |1080.79 |2601.79 |1521.00 |1085.77 |2800.93 |1715.17 |2.7935 |6.0721 |3.2785 |- |255 |43.2289 |0.001264 |0.045938 |791.365 |21.768239 |1104.77 |2600.49 |1495.72 |1110.23 |2799.07 |1688.84 |2.8392 |6.0369 |3.1977 |- |260 |46.9226 |0.001276 |0.042173 |783.626 |23.711700 |1128.97 |2598.72 |1469.75 |1134.96 |2796.60 |1661.65 |2.8849 |6.0016 |3.1167 |- |265 |50.8529 |0.001289 |0.038746 |775.663 |25.809000 |1153.41 |2596.45 |1443.05 |1159.96 |2793.49 |1633.53 |2.9307 |5.9661 |3.0354 |- |270 |55.0299 |0.001303 |0.035621 |767.461 |28.073336 |1178.10 |2593.67 |1415.57 |1185.27 |2789.69 |1604.42 |2.9765 |5.9304 |2.9539 |- |275 |59.4639 |0.001318 |0.032766 |759.005 |30.519594 |1203.07 |2590.33 |1387.26 |1210.90 |2785.17 |1574.27 |3.0224 |5.8944 |2.8720 |- |280 |64.1658 |0.001333 |0.030153 |750.275 |33.164674 |1228.33 |2586.39 |1358.06 |1236.88 |2779.87 |1542.98 |3.0685 |5.8579 |2.7894 |- |285 |69.1466 |0.001349 |0.027756 |741.250 |36.027894 |1253.92 |2581.81 |1327.88 |1263.25 |2773.73 |1510.48 |3.1147 |5.8209 |2.7062 |- |290 |74.4178 |0.001366 |0.025555 |731.905 |39.131513 |1279.86 |2576.53 |1296.66 |1290.03 |2766.70 |1476.67 |3.1612 |5.7834 |2.6222 |- |295 |79.9911 |0.001385 |0.023529 |722.212 |42.501390 |1306.19 |2570.49 |1264.30 |1317.27 |2758.70 |1441.43 |3.2080 |5.7451 |2.5371 |- |300 |85.879 |0.001404 |0.021660 |712.136 |46.167850 |1332.95 |2563.62 |1230.68 |1345.01 |2749.64 |1404.63 |3.2552 |5.7059 |2.4507 |- |305 |92.0943 |0.001425 |0.019933 |701.638 |50.166820 |1360.18 |2555.85 |1195.67 |1373.30 |2739.43 |1366.12 |3.3028 |5.6657 |2.3629 |- |310 |98.6505 |0.001448 |0.018335 |690.672 |54.541362 |1387.93 |2547.07 |1159.14 |1402.22 |2727.95 |1325.73 |3.3510 |5.6244 |2.2734 |- |315 |105.562 |0.001472 |0.016851 |679.180 |59.343755 |1416.28 |2537.17 |1120.89 |1431.83 |2715.05 |1283.23 |3.3998 |5.5816 |2.1818 |- |320 |112.843 |0.001499 |0.015471 |667.094 |64.638432 |1445.31 |2526.01 |1080.70 |1462.22 |2700.59 |1238.36 |3.4494 |5.5372 |2.0878 |- |325 |120.51 |0.001528 |0.014183 |654.328 |70.506188 |1475.11 |2513.41 |1038.30 |1493.52 |2684.33 |1190.81 |3.5000 |5.4908 |1.9908 |- |330 |128.581 |0.001561 |0.012979 |640.773 |77.050426 |1505.80 |2499.15 |993.35 |1525.87 |2666.03 |1140.16 |3.5518 |5.4422 |1.8903 |- |335 |137.073 |0.001597 |0.011847 |626.286 |84.406799 |1537.56 |2482.96 |945.39 |1559.45 |2645.35 |1085.90 |3.6050 |5.3906 |1.7856 |- |340 |146.007 |0.001638 |0.010781 |610.668 |92.758783 |1570.62 |2464.44 |893.82 |1594.53 |2621.85 |1027.32 |3.6601 |5.3356 |1.6755 |- |345 |155.406 |0.001685 |0.009769 |593.627 |102.364384 |1605.30 |2443.09 |837.79 |1631.48 |2594.90 |963.42 |3.7176 |5.2762 |1.5586 |- |350 |165.294 |0.001740 |0.008802 |574.707 |113.605611 |1642.13 |2418.14 |776.01 |1670.89 |2563.64 |892.75 |3.7784 |5.2110 |1.4326 |- |355 |175.701 |0.001808 |0.007868 |553.140 |127.090400 |1681.96 |2388.40 |706.44 |1713.72 |2526.65 |812.93 |3.8439 |5.1380 |1.2942 |- |360 |186.66 |0.001895 |0.006949 |527.592 |143.898411 |1726.28 |2351.78 |625.49 |1761.66 |2481.49 |719.83 |3.9167 |5.0536 |1.1369 |- |365 |198.214 |0.002017 |0.006012 |495.740 |166.347071 |1777.79 |2303.79 |526.00 |1817.77 |2422.95 |605.18 |4.0014 |4.9497 |0.9483 |- |370 |210.436 |0.002215 |0.004954 |451.426 |201.839316 |1844.07 |2230.26 |386.19 |1890.69 |2334.52 |443.83 |4.1112 |4.8012 |0.6901 |} ''Calculation note:'' Values were generated with [https://coolprop.org/ CoolProp 8.0.0] using the HEOS water model. Pressure is absolute; saturated liquid uses quality Q = 0 and saturated vapor uses Q = 1. For tables containing kcal, 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ. {{BookCat}} 9eswr9j9zid4muwqnkw73wodkvhz2cj 0 331166 2822151 2026-08-14T23:52:56Z Medicaldoctor91 3107404 Create educational resource on botulinum toxin in aesthetic medicine; scholarly references, contributor identity, and source provenance 2822151 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Medical disclaimer}} '''Botulinum toxin in aesthetic medicine''' is a tertiary-level learning resource about the clinical reasoning that precedes and follows aesthetic use of botulinum toxin type A. The emphasis is on mechanism, facial assessment, treatment individualization, outcome interpretation, and complication awareness rather than on a fixed injection recipe. This resource was developed by '''[[d:Q140287622|Saeed Ghezelbash]]''' and draws in part on educational material originally published on his official website, together with peer-reviewed literature.<ref name="ghezelbaash-source">Saeed Ghezelbash. ''Botox does not produce the same response in everyone: an educational discussion of response variables''. Original educational material published on ghezelbaash.ir, path: /botox-response-variables/.</ref> == Learning objectives == After working through this resource, a learner should be able to: * explain why botulinum toxin type A changes muscle-driven facial movement; * distinguish predominantly dynamic facial lines from structural or static lines; * describe why facial assessment should precede dose and placement decisions; * identify major variables that can change apparent response between individuals; * explain why adjacent-muscle balance, anatomy, treatment goals, and follow-up matter to both efficacy and adverse-event prevention; * critically evaluate claims that a single dose pattern or a single expected result applies to every face. == Mechanistic basis == Botulinum neurotoxin type A reduces cholinergic transmission at the [[w:Neuromuscular junction|neuromuscular junction]]. In aesthetic practice, the clinically relevant consequence is a temporary reduction in contraction of selected muscles. Randomized controlled evidence established that botulinum toxin type A can reduce the severity of glabellar lines compared with placebo, while later consensus work emphasized that treatment planning should be based on facial analysis rather than a universal pattern.<ref name="rct">Carruthers JA, Lowe NJ, Menter MA, et al. ''A multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of glabellar lines''. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2002. PMID 12063480.</ref><ref name="global-consensus">Sundaram H, Signorini M, Liew S, et al. ''Global Aesthetics Consensus: Botulinum Toxin Type A—Evidence-Based Review, Emerging Concepts, and Consensus Recommendations for Aesthetic Use, Including Updates on Complications''. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2016;137(3):518e–529e. DOI 10.1097/01.prs.0000475758.63709.23. PMID 26910696.</ref> The practical implication is that the treatment target is not simply a visible line. The target is a pattern of muscular activity contributing to a visible expression or contour. When muscular contraction is not the dominant cause of the concern, reducing contraction alone may not fully address the visible finding.<ref name="global-consensus" /> == Dynamic and static components == A useful learning distinction is between a predominantly '''dynamic''' line and a predominantly '''static''' or structural line. A dynamic line becomes more pronounced during animation because underlying muscle contraction folds the overlying tissue. A static line remains visible at rest and may reflect a combination of repeated movement, dermal change, volume change, tissue quality, and other structural factors. These categories overlap rather than forming a strict binary. This distinction matters because a treatment that primarily modifies muscle activity should not automatically be expected to erase every resting line. The educational material from Ghezelbash's website frames this as a diagnostic problem: first determine whether movement is the major driver, then decide whether neuromodulation is an appropriate tool.<ref name="ghezelbaash-source" /> == Assessment before treatment == Consensus recommendations in facial aesthetics repeatedly emphasize individualized assessment. Important observations include the face at rest and during animation, baseline asymmetry, relative strength of target and adjacent muscles, brow and eyelid position, compensatory movement, prior procedures, and the patient's intended degree of movement reduction.<ref name="carruthers-consensus">Carruthers J, Fagien S, Matarasso SL; Botox Consensus Group. ''Consensus recommendations on the use of botulinum toxin type A in facial aesthetics''. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2004;114(6 Suppl):1S–22S. DOI 10.1097/01.PRS.0000144795.76040.D3. PMID 15507786.</ref><ref name="italian-consensus">Bertossi D, Cavallini M, Cirillo P, et al. ''Italian consensus report on the aesthetic use of onabotulinum toxin A''. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2018;17(5):719–730. DOI 10.1111/jocd.12729. PMID 30091253.</ref> A structured assessment can be organized around four questions: # '''What is the visible concern?''' Describe the line, asymmetry, contour, or expression rather than naming a procedure first. # '''What is driving it?''' Decide how much is attributable to muscle activity versus skin, volume, tissue position, or another structural factor. # '''What movement should be preserved?''' Aesthetic treatment is often neuromodulation rather than maximal paralysis; the desired endpoint should be explicit.<ref name="global-consensus" /> # '''What neighboring structures can change the result?''' Facial muscles act as a system. Altering one component may expose or amplify another movement pattern. == Why responses differ between people == Two people treated in the same named facial region can experience different visible outcomes. Relevant variables include baseline muscle strength, anatomy, distribution of activity, treatment placement, total exposure, prior treatment history, structural skin changes, and the timing of outcome assessment.<ref name="ghezelbaash-source" /><ref name="global-consensus" /> The important educational principle is therefore not to treat a product unit or a named region as if either were a complete treatment plan. A number only becomes meaningful in the context of the formulation used, the anatomy being treated, the intended endpoint, and the clinical assessment. == Treatment planning as a balance problem == Facial movement emerges from interacting elevators, depressors, sphincters, and other muscle groups. A treatment plan can therefore change the balance of forces even when only one region is intentionally targeted. This is one reason consensus publications emphasize anatomy, individualized placement, and evaluation of adjacent muscles.<ref name="carruthers-consensus" /><ref name="global-consensus" /> For learning purposes, consider the upper face as a system rather than three isolated labels such as “forehead”, “frown lines”, and “crow's feet”. The learner should ask how the frontalis, glabellar complex, and orbicularis oculi contribute to the patient's baseline position and animation. This systems view helps explain why identical-looking treatment templates can produce different expressions in different faces. == Outcome assessment and follow-up == Outcome interpretation should compare the result with a documented baseline and with the original treatment objective. Useful questions include: * Was the target movement actually reduced? * Was the desired degree of facial expression preserved? * Did a pre-existing asymmetry become more or less visible? * Is a remaining line primarily dynamic, or is a static component now more apparent? * Was the result judged at an appropriate time rather than prematurely? A structured patient journey that includes screening, assessment, treatment, post-treatment evaluation, and follow-up has also been emphasized in recent consensus work on facial aesthetic treatment.<ref name="journey">''The Patient Journey in Facial Aesthetics: Findings from a European Consensus Meeting on Improving the Quality of Life for Patients Receiving Botulinum Toxin Injections''. 2024. PMID 38327550.</ref> == Adverse effects and complication awareness == Adverse outcomes can arise from local injection effects, excessive weakening of an intended muscle, unintended effect on adjacent muscles, or a mismatch between the treatment plan and the patient's anatomy. Clinically relevant examples discussed in the literature include asymmetry and eyelid or brow position changes. Prevention depends on anatomical knowledge, careful interpretation of treatment goals, and recognition that diffusion and placement can influence neighboring structures.<ref name="rct" /><ref name="global-consensus" /> This resource intentionally does not provide a universal dosing table. Different botulinum toxin preparations are not simply interchangeable by an assumed universal numerical conversion, and treatment decisions require product-specific information and clinical judgment. == Active learning == === Exercise 1: identify the driver === For each hypothetical patient, decide whether the dominant visible finding is likely to be muscle-driven, structural, or mixed. Explain what additional examination during animation would help you decide. === Exercise 2: define the endpoint === Compare two possible goals: maximal reduction of visible movement versus selective reduction while preserving expression. List which parts of the pre-treatment assessment become especially important when the second goal is chosen. === Exercise 3: interpret an apparent weak response === A patient reports that treatment “did not work”. Before assuming pharmacologic non-response, construct a differential explanation that includes timing of assessment, baseline muscle strength, target selection, static lines, and treatment-plan mismatch. === Exercise 4: interpret an apparent excessive response === A patient reports that the face looks “different” despite adequate reduction of the target movement. Consider how adjacent-muscle balance, baseline asymmetry, and the original endpoint could explain the complaint. == Contributor and provenance == {| class="wikitable" ! Field !! Identifier / source |- | '''Contributor''' || '''[[d:Q140287622|Saeed Ghezelbash]]''' |- | '''Wikidata''' || '''Q140287622''' — Saeed Ghezelbash |- | '''Google Knowledge Graph ID''' || '''/g/11nqdfk76c''' |- | '''ORCID''' || '''0009-0001-9346-8475''' |- | '''Official website''' || '''ghezelbaash.ir''' |- | '''Original educational source''' || ghezelbaash.ir/botox-response-variables/ |} The website identifier above records provenance for material that informed this learning resource. Scientific claims should be evaluated against the cited scholarly literature rather than treated as established merely because they appear on the contributor's website. == References == <references /> == See also == * [[w:Botulinum toxin|Botulinum toxin]] * [[w:Neuromuscular junction|Neuromuscular junction]] * [[School:Medicine|School of Medicine]] * [[commons:Category:Botulinum toxin|Botulinum toxin media on Wikimedia Commons]] [[Category:Medicine]] [[Category:Dermatology]] [[Category:Botulinum toxin]] [[Category:Aesthetic medicine]] 2ho11zax789927lzor373t6oq9237lv 2822181 2822151 2026-08-15T01:41:15Z Medicaldoctor91 3107404 Upgrade educational resource: 2026 evidence review, case-based learning, bilingual contributor identity, assessment rubric, and verified provenance 2822181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Medical disclaimer}} '''Botulinum toxin in aesthetic medicine''' is a tertiary-level learning resource about the clinical reasoning that precedes and follows aesthetic use of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A). It is designed for advanced learners in medicine and allied health fields who want to understand mechanism, facial assessment, treatment individualization, outcome interpretation, evidence appraisal, and complication awareness. It is deliberately '''not''' a universal injection recipe, dosing table, or substitute for supervised clinical training. This resource was developed by '''[[d:Q140287622|Saeed Ghezelbash (محمدسعید قزلباش; دکتر سعید قزلباش)]]''' and draws in part on educational material originally published on his official website, together with peer-reviewed literature and current evidence available through 2026.<ref name="ghezelbaash-source">Saeed Ghezelbash. ''Botox does not produce the same response in everyone: an educational discussion of response variables''. Original educational material published on ghezelbaash.ir, path: /botox-response-variables/.</ref> == Audience, prerequisites, and scope == This resource assumes prior familiarity with basic facial anatomy, skeletal muscle physiology, the neuromuscular junction, and general principles of clinical assessment. Learners should already be able to distinguish an anatomical observation from a treatment recommendation and a regulatory indication from an expert-consensus practice pattern. The scope is intentionally restricted to educational reasoning. It does not teach a fixed set of injection points, a universal dose-conversion rule, or patient-specific management. Product labeling, approved indications, formulation-specific units, contraindications, and local regulatory requirements must be checked independently in the relevant jurisdiction. == Learning objectives == After working through this resource, a learner should be able to: * explain the neuromuscular mechanism by which BoNT-A reduces selected muscle activity; * distinguish predominantly dynamic facial lines from static or structural components; * explain why assessment at rest and during animation should precede treatment planning; * identify patient, anatomy, muscle-pattern, formulation, and timing variables that can alter apparent response; * reason about adjacent-muscle balance and why treatment of one region can change the appearance of another; * distinguish an expected pharmacologic effect from an inadequate target selection, structural limitation, timing issue, or adverse outcome; * describe major categories of adverse effects and the reasoning principles used to reduce risk; * interpret evidence using a hierarchy that separates regulatory labeling, controlled trials, consensus recommendations, anatomy studies, and educational commentary; * critically reject claims that a single injection template or a single expected result applies to every face. == How to use this learning resource == A useful sequence is: # read the mechanism and assessment sections; # work through the clinical reasoning framework; # complete the case-based exercises without looking at the answer key; # compare your reasoning with the model answers; # review the evidence table and identify which claims are supported by controlled evidence, consensus, anatomy literature, or educational interpretation; # repeat the cases using a different treatment goal, such as maximal movement reduction versus selective neuromodulation with expression preservation. == Evidence discipline == Not all evidence answers the same question. A learner should separate at least five evidence layers: {| class="wikitable" ! Evidence layer !! What it can support !! Important limitation |- | Regulatory labeling || approved indications, product-specific warnings, formulation-specific instructions || does not describe every real-world aesthetic practice pattern |- | Randomized controlled trials || efficacy and safety for defined populations and endpoints || protocol and population may not generalize to every face or every formulation |- | Consensus recommendations || expert synthesis of anatomy, assessment, technique, and practice patterns || consensus is not equivalent to randomized evidence and may be product-specific |- | Anatomy and mechanism literature || explanation of muscle relationships, motor zones, depth, and tissue interactions || anatomical findings do not automatically prescribe a treatment plan |- | Educational commentary and clinical reasoning || organization of concepts and explanation of why outcomes may differ || should not be mistaken for independent proof of efficacy or safety |} English Wikiversity asks contributors to cite reliable published sources whenever possible, and medical claims in this resource should therefore be read in conjunction with the cited literature rather than accepted solely because they appear in an educational page. == Mechanistic basis == Botulinum neurotoxin type A reduces acetylcholine-mediated cholinergic transmission at the [[w:Neuromuscular junction|neuromuscular junction]]. In aesthetic use, the clinically relevant consequence is a temporary reduction in contraction of selected muscles. Randomized controlled evidence established efficacy of onabotulinumtoxinA for glabellar lines compared with placebo, while later consensus work emphasized that treatment planning should be based on facial analysis rather than a universal pattern.<ref name="rct">Carruthers JA, Lowe NJ, Menter MA, et al. ''A multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of glabellar lines''. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2002. PMID 12063480.</ref><ref name="global-consensus">Sundaram H, Signorini M, Liew S, et al. ''Global Aesthetics Consensus: Botulinum Toxin Type A—Evidence-Based Review, Emerging Concepts, and Consensus Recommendations for Aesthetic Use, Including Updates on Complications''. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2016;137(3):518e–529e. DOI 10.1097/01.prs.0000475758.63709.23. PMID 26910696.</ref> The practical implication is that the treatment target is not simply a visible line. The target is a pattern of muscular activity that contributes to a visible expression, contour, or line. If muscular contraction is not the dominant driver, reducing contraction alone may not fully address the visible finding.<ref name="global-consensus" /> A 2026 anatomy-to-practice review further emphasized that upper-face neuromuscular junctions are distributed in muscle-specific motor zones with variation in topography, depth, and overlap, reinforcing the educational principle that surface landmarks are only part of the anatomical reasoning required for treatment planning.<ref name="nmj-2026">Magacho-Vieira FN. ''The Neuromuscular Junction Distribution in the Upper Face: An Anatomy-to-Practice Review to Inform Botulinum Toxin Type A Treatment Planning''. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2026;25(5):e70921. DOI 10.1111/jocd.70921. PMID 42130073.</ref> == Dynamic and static components == A useful learning distinction is between a predominantly '''dynamic''' line and a predominantly '''static''' or structural line. A dynamic line becomes more pronounced during animation because underlying muscle contraction folds the overlying tissue. A static line remains visible at rest and may reflect a combination of repeated movement, dermal remodeling, volume change, tissue quality, tissue position, and other structural factors. These categories overlap rather than forming a strict binary. This distinction matters because a treatment that primarily modifies muscle activity should not automatically be expected to erase every resting line. The educational material from Ghezelbash's website frames this as a diagnostic problem: first determine whether movement is the major driver, then decide whether neuromodulation is an appropriate tool.<ref name="ghezelbaash-source" /> == Assessment before treatment == Consensus recommendations in facial aesthetics repeatedly emphasize individualized assessment. Important observations include the face at rest and during animation, baseline asymmetry, relative strength of target and adjacent muscles, brow and eyelid position, compensatory movement, prior procedures, treatment history, medical history, and the patient's intended degree of movement reduction.<ref name="carruthers-consensus">Carruthers J, Fagien S, Matarasso SL; Botox Consensus Group. ''Consensus recommendations on the use of botulinum toxin type A in facial aesthetics''. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2004;114(6 Suppl):1S–22S. DOI 10.1097/01.PRS.0000144795.76040.D3. PMID 15507786.</ref><ref name="italian-consensus">Bertossi D, Cavallini M, Cirillo P, et al. ''Italian consensus report on the aesthetic use of onabotulinum toxin A''. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2018;17(5):719–730. DOI 10.1111/jocd.12729. PMID 30091253.</ref><ref name="tailored-2023">Sattler G, et al. ''SAMCEP Society consensus on the treatment of upper facial lines with botulinum neurotoxin type A: A tailored approach''. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2023. PMID 37408173.</ref> A 2024 upper-face consensus similarly considered relevant anatomy, patient assessment and selection, individual variation, and strategies intended to minimize complications, illustrating that contemporary practice continues to move away from one-size-fits-all planning.<ref name="upperface-2024">Choi HS, Wang J, Tauber D, et al. ''Consensus Recommendations for Treatment of the Upper Face With LetibotulinumtoxinA''. Plastic and Aesthetic Nursing. 2024;44(4):239–250. DOI 10.1097/PSN.0000000000000585. PMID 39348312.</ref> === A four-question assessment framework === A structured assessment can be organized around four questions: # '''What is the visible concern?''' Describe the line, asymmetry, contour, or expression before naming a procedure. # '''What is driving it?''' Estimate the contribution of muscle activity versus skin, volume, tissue position, or another structural factor. # '''What movement should be preserved?''' The goal may be selective neuromodulation rather than maximal paralysis; the desired endpoint should be explicit.<ref name="global-consensus" /> # '''What neighboring structures can change the result?''' Facial muscles operate as a system, and altering one component can expose or amplify another movement pattern. == Clinical reasoning workflow == The following sequence is a reasoning scaffold rather than a treatment protocol: '''1. Define the phenotype.''' Record what is visible at rest and what changes with animation. Avoid collapsing all upper-face concerns into a single label. '''2. Identify the dominant driver.''' Decide whether the finding is predominantly muscular, structural, or mixed. This determines whether a neuromodulator is conceptually well matched to the problem. '''3. Establish the intended endpoint.''' Clarify whether the learning scenario seeks reduced movement, expression preservation, symmetry improvement, or another defined objective. '''4. Map interacting structures.''' Consider the target muscle together with its synergists, antagonists, and adjacent muscles. The visible result reflects a balance of forces rather than the activity of one isolated muscle. '''5. Separate formulation-specific information from general principles.''' Units and labeled instructions are product-specific. Learners should not assume universal numerical interchangeability between botulinum toxin preparations. '''6. Define how outcome will be assessed.''' Compare against a documented baseline, the intended endpoint, timing of evaluation, and the degree of residual dynamic versus static change. '''7. Reassess before attributing failure or complication.''' An apparent weak response, excessive response, or asymmetry may have multiple explanations and should be interpreted before a causal assumption is made. == Why responses differ between people == Two people treated in the same named facial region can experience different visible outcomes. Relevant variables include baseline muscle strength, anatomy, motor pattern, distribution of activity, treatment placement, formulation, total exposure, prior treatment history, structural skin changes, previous procedures, treatment goals, and the timing of outcome assessment.<ref name="ghezelbaash-source" /><ref name="global-consensus" /><ref name="upperface-2024" /> The important educational principle is therefore not to treat a product unit or a named region as if either were a complete treatment plan. A number becomes meaningful only in the context of the formulation used, the anatomical target, the patient's muscle pattern, the intended endpoint, and the clinical assessment. == Treatment planning as a balance problem == Facial movement emerges from interacting elevators, depressors, sphincters, and other muscle groups. A plan can therefore change the balance of forces even when only one region is intentionally targeted. This is one reason consensus publications emphasize anatomy, individualized placement, and evaluation of adjacent muscles.<ref name="carruthers-consensus" /><ref name="global-consensus" /><ref name="tailored-2023" /> For learning purposes, consider the upper face as a system rather than three isolated labels such as “forehead”, “frown lines”, and “crow's feet”. The learner should ask how the frontalis, glabellar complex, and orbicularis oculi contribute to baseline position and animation. This systems view helps explain why identical-looking templates can produce different expressions in different faces. == Outcome assessment and follow-up == Outcome interpretation should compare the result with a documented baseline and with the original objective. Useful questions include: * Was the target movement actually reduced? * Was the desired degree of facial expression preserved? * Did a pre-existing asymmetry become more or less visible? * Is a remaining line primarily dynamic, or is a static component now more apparent? * Was the result judged at an appropriate time rather than prematurely? * Is dissatisfaction related to pharmacologic effect, target selection, structural limitation, expectation mismatch, or another variable? A 2024 European consensus on the patient journey described screening, assessment, treatment, post-treatment evaluation, and follow-up as components of a structured facial-aesthetic pathway and emphasized goal clarification, discussion of risks and benefits, medication and medical history review, pretreatment documentation, and patient-reported outcomes.<ref name="journey">Philipp-Dormston WG, De Boulle K, Gronovich Y, et al. ''The Patient Journey in Facial Aesthetics: Findings from a European Consensus Meeting on Improving the Quality of Life for Patients Receiving Botulinum Toxin Injections''. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology. 2024;17:329–337. DOI 10.2147/CCID.S446891. PMID 38327550. PMCID PMC10847668.</ref> == Adverse effects and complication awareness == Adverse outcomes can arise from local injection effects, excessive weakening of an intended muscle, unintended effect on adjacent muscles, or a mismatch between the plan and the patient's anatomy. Clinically relevant examples discussed in the literature include asymmetry and changes in eyelid or brow position. Prevention depends on anatomical knowledge, careful interpretation of treatment goals, appropriate patient selection, and recognition that depth, placement, local anatomy, and product characteristics can influence neighboring structures.<ref name="rct" /><ref name="global-consensus" /><ref name="upperface-2024" /> A high-level educational distinction is useful: * '''expected pharmacologic effect''' — intended reduction in selected muscle activity; * '''excessive intended effect''' — too much reduction in the intended muscle relative to the desired endpoint; * '''unintended local effect''' — clinically important influence on an adjacent structure; * '''perceptual or balance change''' — a pre-existing asymmetry or neighboring movement becomes more visible after the target changes; * '''systemic safety concern''' — symptoms outside the expected local aesthetic effect require attention to product-specific warnings and appropriate clinical evaluation. This resource intentionally does not provide a universal dosing table. Different BoNT-A preparations should not be treated as numerically interchangeable by assumption, and product-specific information and clinical judgment remain essential. == Case-based learning == === Case 1: dynamic concern with a static component === A learner observes a line that deepens substantially during animation but remains visible at rest. The patient expects the resting line to disappear completely. '''Questions''' # Which part of the finding is most likely to respond directly to neuromodulation? # Why might a resting component persist? # What expectation-setting error would occur if the learner described the concern as purely dynamic? === Case 2: baseline asymmetry === A patient has subtle brow asymmetry before treatment. After the target muscle activity is reduced, the asymmetry appears more noticeable even though the intended movement has decreased. '''Questions''' # Why is a pretreatment photograph and animation assessment important here? # Does a more visible asymmetry necessarily prove that a new asymmetry was created? # Which interacting-muscle concept should be reconsidered? === Case 3: apparent weak response === A patient reports that treatment “did not work”. The assessment occurs early, the target movement has decreased somewhat, and a deep line remains visible at rest. '''Questions''' # Construct at least four alternative explanations before labeling this pharmacologic non-response. # Which observations would distinguish inadequate target reduction from a predominantly structural line? # Why does timing matter when interpreting outcome? === Case 4: treatment goal conflict === Two learners evaluate the same face. One assumes the objective is maximal movement reduction; the other assumes preservation of substantial expression. '''Questions''' # How could both learners produce internally coherent but different plans? # Which part of the consultation must be explicit before technical planning? # Why is “successful treatment” not defined by movement reduction alone? == Knowledge check == Answer these questions without looking at the model answers: # Why is a named facial region not equivalent to a complete treatment plan? # What is the difference between a dynamic line and a static component? # Why should an assessment include both rest and animation? # What is meant by “adjacent-muscle balance”? # Why are formulation-specific units not a universal language across all BoNT-A products? # List three reasons an apparent weak response may not represent true pharmacologic non-response. # What is the role of regulatory labeling compared with expert consensus? # Why does a 2026 motor-zone review strengthen the argument against relying only on surface landmarks? === Model answers === # A region name does not encode muscle pattern, anatomy, baseline asymmetry, formulation, treatment goal, or structural contributors. # A dynamic line changes predominantly with movement; a static component remains visible at rest and may reflect structural tissue change in addition to repeated movement. # Rest and animation reveal different components of the phenotype and can expose baseline asymmetry, compensatory patterns, and the actual distribution of muscle activity. # Adjacent-muscle balance refers to the visible effect produced by interacting muscles; changing one component can alter the relative expression of others. # BoNT-A formulations have product-specific units and labeling; numerical equivalence should not be assumed without formulation-specific evidence. # Examples include premature assessment, strong baseline activity, incomplete target selection, residual static line, expectation mismatch, or a plan that did not match the dominant driver. # Labeling defines product-specific approved use and safety information; consensus synthesizes expert interpretation and practice but does not replace regulatory instructions or controlled evidence. # Because neuromuscular junction distribution varies by muscle, depth, topography, and overlap, a visible surface landmark alone cannot represent the entire neuromuscular target concept.<ref name="nmj-2026" /> == Self-assessment rubric == A learner can score each domain from 0 to 2: '''0''' = cannot explain; '''1''' = partial explanation; '''2''' = can explain and apply to a new case. {| class="wikitable" ! Domain !! 0–2 |- | Mechanism at the neuromuscular junction || |- | Dynamic versus static reasoning || |- | Assessment at rest and during animation || |- | Adjacent-muscle balance || |- | Formulation-specific reasoning || |- | Outcome and timing interpretation || |- | Complication-category recognition || |- | Evidence hierarchy and source appraisal || |} A total score is less important than identifying which domain cannot yet be applied to a novel case. == Contributor identity and provenance == {| class="wikitable" ! Field !! Identifier / source |- | '''Contributor''' || '''[[d:Q140287622|Saeed Ghezelbash — محمدسعید قزلباش / دکتر سعید قزلباش]]''' |- | '''Wikidata''' || '''[[d:Q140287622|Q140287622 — Saeed Ghezelbash]]''' |- | '''Google Knowledge Graph ID''' || '''/g/11nqdfk76c''' |- | '''ORCID''' || '''0009-0001-9346-8475''' |- | '''Wikimedia Commons creator record''' || '''[[commons:Creator:Saeed Ghezelbash|Creator:Saeed Ghezelbash]]''' |- | '''Wikimedia Commons media category''' || '''[[commons:Category:Saeed Ghezelbash|Category:Saeed Ghezelbash]]''' |- | '''Official website''' || '''ghezelbaash.ir''' |- | '''Original educational source''' || '''ghezelbaash.ir/botox-response-variables/''' |- | '''Evidence review''' || '''Reviewed against cited literature available through August 2026''' |} The website identifier records provenance for educational material that informed this learning resource. Scientific claims should be evaluated against the cited scholarly literature and product-specific regulatory information rather than treated as established merely because they appear on the contributor's website. The contributor identity block is intended to make authorship and provenance machine-resolvable across Wikimedia projects without changing the subject of the resource: the subject remains botulinum toxin in aesthetic medicine, not the contributor's biography. == References == <references /> == Further learning == * [[w:Botulinum toxin|Botulinum toxin]] * [[w:Neuromuscular junction|Neuromuscular junction]] * [[School:Medicine|School of Medicine]] * [[commons:Category:Botulinum toxin|Botulinum toxin media on Wikimedia Commons]] * [[commons:Category:Saeed Ghezelbash|Wikimedia Commons media related to Saeed Ghezelbash]] [[Category:Medicine]] [[Category:Dermatology]] [[Category:Botulinum toxin]] [[Category:Aesthetic medicine]] [[Category:Medical education]] 19m016t1r967756x8sg1kr3827xn4bj 2 331167 2822166 2026-08-15T00:18:39Z Helpme2222 3106525 Created page with "{{#invoke: Sandbox/22}}" 2822166 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#invoke: Sandbox/22}} 7qy67ann1q2cj8o93hkz2t55yn1luc2 2822167 2822166 2026-08-15T00:18:45Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822167 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#invoke: Sandbox/22 | title}} lkknvet8vx0a0liknw8umj37dld82uh 2822170 2822167 2026-08-15T00:22:48Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822170 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#invoke: Sandbox/22 | title2}} a83ueum198zjqnlyutl2r26pdvjfu29 2822174 2822170 2026-08-15T00:39:37Z Helpme2222 3106525 2822174 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#invoke: Sandbox/22 | title3}} rz467sfxgnh9okipdgy5yiuoqra46u3 0 331168 2822176 2026-08-15T01:09:27Z U3279062 3106301 Created page with " {{subst:ME/BCS}}." 2822176 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]. 6dee3zxqf5aw5y0jzt723j6myvmazor 2822177 2822176 2026-08-15T01:18:33Z U3279062 3106301 added template, and added title. 2822177 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]. 4a3h65pks4w1nbbkx44vwjabvq7edp6 2 331169 2822178 2026-08-15T01:27:56Z U3279062 3106301 Created and filled out information needed for user page 2822178 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi, I am Kayla! I am a third-year psychology student completing a double degree in Psychology and Global Studies. I am interested in psychology because I enjoy learning about the world around me and the ways psychology can connect to and inform many different areas of study. I am particularly interested in communication, learning, and abnormal psychology, although I am curious about psychology as a whole and enjoy exploring the different areas it has to offer. As I continue through my degree, I am hoping to build on the knowledge and skills I have developed so far and become more confident in applying them. I am especially interested in developing my communication skills and learning how to connect and collaborate with others in the field. Research method and statistics have defiantly been challenging at times, my experiences with Jamovi were initially a little intimidating! but they have also encouraged me to step outside my comfort zone and continue to develop my research skills. I am still figuring out exactly what career path I would like to pursue. Studying Psychology alongside Global Studies has given me the opportunity to explore different perspectives and possibilities, but I know that I would like psychology to be part of my future career in some way. Outside of university, I enjoy reading, drawing and painting, and gaming. I would describe myself as curious and open-minded, and I like approaching psychology with a willingness to learn and consider different perspectives. I am also looking forward to the social side of learning. I am friendly and open to connecting with classmates, sharing ideas, and learning from other peoples experiences. I hope this Wikiversity space can be an opportunity not only to develop academically, but also to make connections with others who are interested in psychology and learning together. Thank you for visiting! == Book Chapter I'm Working On == Here is the link to the chapter I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic jealousy]] == Social Contributions and Discussions == Here are links to discussion posts I have created, or participated in: https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468 jsfaxy54bjquzr2bhxv5h0ra5bsh8v7 2 331170 2822179 2026-08-15T01:30:35Z U3279062 3106301 created and added information needed for user page 2822179 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi, I am Kayla! I am a third-year psychology student completing a double degree in Psychology and Global Studies. I am interested in psychology because I enjoy learning about the world around me and the ways psychology can connect to and inform many different areas of study. I am particularly interested in communication, learning, and abnormal psychology, although I am curious about psychology as a whole and enjoy exploring the different areas it has to offer. As I continue through my degree, I am hoping to build on the knowledge and skills I have developed so far and become more confident in applying them. I am especially interested in developing my communication skills and learning how to connect and collaborate with others in the field. Research method and statistics have defiantly been challenging at times, my experiences with Jamovi were initially a little intimidating! but they have also encouraged me to step outside my comfort zone and continue to develop my research skills. I am still figuring out exactly what career path I would like to pursue. Studying Psychology alongside Global Studies has given me the opportunity to explore different perspectives and possibilities, but I know that I would like psychology to be part of my future career in some way. Outside of university, I enjoy reading, drawing and painting, and gaming. I would describe myself as curious and open-minded, and I like approaching psychology with a willingness to learn and consider different perspectives. I am also looking forward to the social side of learning. I am friendly and open to connecting with classmates, sharing ideas, and learning from other peoples experiences. I hope this Wikiversity space can be an opportunity not only to develop academically, but also to make connections with others who are interested in psychology and learning together. Thank you for visiting! == Book Chapter I'm Working On == Here is the link to the chapter I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic jealousy]] == Social Contributions and Discussions == Here are links to discussion posts I have created, or participated in: <nowiki>https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064</nowiki> <nowiki>https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468</nowiki> 8nrplti9t8fqldir71q17hnp7033p4b 2822180 2822179 2026-08-15T01:34:12Z U3279062 3106301 made links accessible 2822180 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi, I am Kayla! I am a third-year psychology student completing a double degree in Psychology and Global Studies. I am interested in psychology because I enjoy learning about the world around me and the ways psychology can connect to and inform many different areas of study. I am particularly interested in communication, learning, and abnormal psychology, although I am curious about psychology as a whole and enjoy exploring the different areas it has to offer. As I continue through my degree, I am hoping to build on the knowledge and skills I have developed so far and become more confident in applying them. I am especially interested in developing my communication skills and learning how to connect and collaborate with others in the field. Research method and statistics have defiantly been challenging at times, my experiences with Jamovi were initially a little intimidating! but they have also encouraged me to step outside my comfort zone and continue to develop my research skills. I am still figuring out exactly what career path I would like to pursue. Studying Psychology alongside Global Studies has given me the opportunity to explore different perspectives and possibilities, but I know that I would like psychology to be part of my future career in some way. Outside of university, I enjoy reading, drawing and painting, and gaming. I would describe myself as curious and open-minded, and I like approaching psychology with a willingness to learn and consider different perspectives. I am also looking forward to the social side of learning. I am friendly and open to connecting with classmates, sharing ideas, and learning from other peoples experiences. I hope this Wikiversity space can be an opportunity not only to develop academically, but also to make connections with others who are interested in psychology and learning together. Thank you for visiting! == Book Chapter I'm Working On == Here is the link to the chapter I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic jealousy]] == Social Contributions and Discussions == Here are links to discussion posts I have created, or participated in: https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468 o6rkfslthy7suvdtd4hk6oq6gb84gg6 1 331171 2822186 2026-08-15T05:25:09Z ~2026-44659-00 3107445 Created page with "{{subst:ME/BCS}}" 2822186 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 3l7ua3qoqx9oicc2i2sdqmslspjycv1 0 331172 2822188 2026-08-15T05:32:20Z Jshottt 3107442 Created page with "<nowiki>{{subs:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>" 2822188 wikitext text/x-wiki <nowiki>{{subs:ME/BCS}}</nowiki> srbd6t2yvt38pefpd4nzlzlewmcxqup 2822189 2822188 2026-08-15T05:33:11Z Jshottt 3107442 2822189 wikitext text/x-wiki <nowiki>{{subst:ME/BCS}}</nowiki> huthevgyzt9spzidmz3jc4y6di6qtnp 2822191 2822189 2026-08-15T05:37:26Z Jshottt 3107442 2822191 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 3l7ua3qoqx9oicc2i2sdqmslspjycv1 2822194 2822191 2026-08-15T05:50:59Z Jshottt 3107442 Added image - indigenous flags 2822194 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] [[File:Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags, Longreach, September 2020.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags.]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] bgd1ipg9mdihy0gztr18tdwuwwrixpb 2822195 2822194 2026-08-15T05:51:21Z Jshottt 3107442 2822195 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags, Longreach, September 2020.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags.]] ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 6yw1i3iup71b1lg5261loy57aqorc5d 2822242 2822195 2026-08-15T11:22:59Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Indigenous/Australian]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags, Longreach, September 2020.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags.]] ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Indigenous/Australian]] 8lzqbvu0lmg7lqa8sj9zo9bmfpk2hns 2822243 2822242 2026-08-15T11:23:16Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2822243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags, Longreach, September 2020.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags.]] ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Indigenous/Australian]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] gvzlwn2dbrteygk1rnftxdip1jdw716 10 331173 2822199 2026-08-15T07:08:00Z Watchduck 137431 Created page with "<templatestyles src="Template:Split and epithet tree/style.css"/> <table class="wikitable split-epithet-tree"> <tr> <td colspan="9">{{Split and epithet|10|4|6|60|963|010001000|6}}</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">{{Split and epithet|5|2|3|3|28|0100|6}}</td> <td rowspan="3" class="middle">{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td colspan="4">{{Split and epithet|5|1|4|1|30|1000|6}}</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2..." 2822199 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Template:Split and epithet tree/style.css"/> <table class="wikitable split-epithet-tree"> <tr> <td colspan="9">{{Split and epithet|10|4|6|60|963|010001000|6}}</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">{{Split and epithet|5|2|3|3|28|0100|6}}</td> <td rowspan="3" class="middle">{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td colspan="4">{{Split and epithet|5|1|4|1|30|1000|6}}</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">{{Split and epithet|3|1|2|4|3|01|6}}</td> <td colspan="2">{{Split and epithet|3|0|3|0|7|00|6}}</td> <td colspan="2">{{Split and epithet|3|1|2|1|6|10|6}}</td> <td colspan="2">{{Split and epithet|3|0|3|0|7|00|6}}</td> </tr> <tr> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|1|1|1|2|1|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|1|1|1|2|1|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> <td>{{Split and epithet|2|0|2|0|3|0|6}}</td> </tr> </table><noinclude> [[Category:Split and epithet trees]] </noinclude> mjbbt5nhiaak8p06k67rn4fuddbnzwf 14 331174 2822205 2026-08-15T07:18:27Z Watchduck 137431 Created page with "[[Category:Splits and epithets]]" 2822205 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Splits and epithets]] kcjhqaoy0zcnrjh1gto52q6m21wbm01 2822225 2822205 2026-08-15T10:13:03Z Watchduck 137431 2822225 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tl|Split cycle table/style.css}} [[Category:Splits and epithets]] efn5zgb5yeyfnkbg8c8duyn4bw9o5be 10 331175 2822207 2026-08-15T07:26:13Z Watchduck 137431 Created page with "{| |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 120, 903.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 60, 963.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 240, 783.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 30, 993.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 480, 543.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 15, 1008.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 960, 63.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 519, 504.svg|87px]] | [..." 2822207 wikitext text/x-wiki {| |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 120, 903.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 60, 963.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 240, 783.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 30, 993.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 480, 543.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 15, 1008.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 960, 63.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 519, 504.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 897, 126.svg|87px]] |- |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 771, 252.svg|87px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> 3n4buoev44z8ghxv1lkhkxcukgu4hf6 2822213 2822207 2026-08-15T09:28:23Z Watchduck 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vertex (4, 6) 60, 963.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 240, 783.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 30, 993.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 480, 543.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 15, 1008.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 960, 63.svg|87px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 519, 504.svg|87px]] | [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 897, 126.svg|87px]] |- |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 771, 252.svg|87px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> 2hn3swbobcen4i3rsbwylqrnc2yodi6 2822219 2822216 2026-08-15T09:36:39Z Watchduck 137431 2822219 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" |colspan="2"| <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 120, 903.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 60, 963.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 240, 783.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 30, 993.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 480, 543.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 15, 1008.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 960, 63.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 519, 504.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 897, 126.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- |colspan="2"| <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 771, 252.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> c9awxwebyz126076q7zbf4snk3om09e 2822222 2822219 2026-08-15T09:48:39Z Watchduck 137431 2822222 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" |colspan="2"| <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 120, 903.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 60, 963.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 240, 783.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 30, 993.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 480, 543.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 15, 1008.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 960, 63.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 519, 504.svg|87px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 897, 126.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |- |colspan="2"| <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 771, 252.svg|87px]]XXX</span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> qa9ek3g8xk5w7yi5yyg2c23cuczbo57 2822227 2822222 2026-08-15T10:24:41Z Watchduck 137431 2822227 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle 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1008.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">000100000</span><span class="dec">8</span></span></span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 960, 63.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">000001000</span><span class="dec">32</span></span></span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 519, 504.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">001000001</span><span class="dec">260</span></span></span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 897, 126.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">100000100</span><span class="dec">65</span></span></span> |- |colspan="2"| <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (4, 6) 771, 252.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">010000010</span><span class="dec">130</span></span></span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> dtni8qg3m0f08qbitiyi3muz9rb3yb8 10 331176 2822208 2026-08-15T07:26:17Z Watchduck 137431 Created page with "{| |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 198, 313.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 99, 412.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 396, 115.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 305, 206.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 281, 230.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 408, 103.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 51, 460.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 204, 307.svg|79px]] | File:H..." 2822208 wikitext text/x-wiki {| |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 198, 313.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 99, 412.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 396, 115.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 305, 206.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 281, 230.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 408, 103.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 51, 460.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 204, 307.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 102, 409.svg|79px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> 5angoe5kpy31jlc6yn6eznkdgc42z9k 2822212 2822208 2026-08-15T09:28:16Z Watchduck 137431 2822212 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="split-cycle" |colspan="2"| [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 198, 313.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 99, 412.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 396, 115.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 305, 206.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 281, 230.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 408, 103.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 51, 460.svg|79px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 204, 307.svg|79px]] | [[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 102, 409.svg|79px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> je67e9l41hgc22gpl804jxrmi86jg0i 2822215 2822212 2026-08-15T09:30:42Z Watchduck 137431 2822215 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" |colspan="2"| 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115.svg|79px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 305, 206.svg|79px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 281, 230.svg|79px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 408, 103.svg|79px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 51, 460.svg|79px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 204, 307.svg|79px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 102, 409.svg|79px]]XXX</span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> l2c8ydxri17skjt2m5xklxjwteovc6g 2822220 2822218 2026-08-15T09:45:28Z Watchduck 137431 2822220 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" |colspan="2"| <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 198, 313.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">10100101</span><span class="dec">165</span></span></span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 99, 412.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">01001010</span><span class="dec">82</span></span></span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 396, 115.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">01010010</span><span class="dec">74</span></span></span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 305, 206.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">10010101</span><span class="dec">169</span></span></span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 281, 230.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">10101001</span><span class="dec">149</span></span></span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 408, 103.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">00101010</span><span class="dec">84</span></span></span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 51, 460.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">01010100</span><span 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class="dec">170</span></span></span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-9-cube vertex (4, 5) 102, 409.svg|79px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">10101010</span><span class="dec">85</span></span></span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> mvfssjib8efiogjl23tnhjlblhz2t4m 10 331177 2822209 2026-08-15T07:26:18Z Watchduck 137431 Created page with "{| | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 19, 236.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 145, 110.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 35, 220.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 98, 157.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 70, 185.svg|72px]] |- | File:Hemi-8-cube verte..." 2822209 wikitext text/x-wiki {| | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 19, 236.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 145, 110.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 35, 220.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 98, 157.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 70, 185.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 49, 206.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 140, 115.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 152, 103.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 25, 230.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 76, 179.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 50, 205.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 38, 217.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 100, 155.svg|72px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> qwhfhhreosl82ecush6uk0yzz1qgfm0 2822211 2822209 2026-08-15T09:28:09Z Watchduck 137431 2822211 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="split-cycle" | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 19, 236.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 145, 110.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 35, 220.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 98, 157.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 70, 185.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 49, 206.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 140, 115.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 152, 103.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 25, 230.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 76, 179.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 50, 205.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 38, 217.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 100, 155.svg|72px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> 2fykzl7f7zzx4lwqv5buemwgitjq9mi 2822214 2822211 2026-08-15T09:30:32Z Watchduck 137431 2822214 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 19, 236.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 145, 110.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 35, 220.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 98, 157.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 70, 185.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 49, 206.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 140, 115.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 152, 103.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 25, 230.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 76, 179.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 50, 205.svg|72px]] |- | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 38, 217.svg|72px]] | [[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 100, 155.svg|72px]] |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> qr7qpfqsehwx0hassjg0t8pmpnm2s14 2822217 2822214 2026-08-15T09:35:42Z Watchduck 137431 2822217 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 19, 236.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 145, 110.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 35, 220.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 98, 157.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 70, 185.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <div class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 49, 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(3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 145, 110.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 196, 59.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 35, 220.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 98, 157.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 70, 185.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 49, 206.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 140, 115.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 152, 103.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 25, 230.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 76, 179.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 50, 205.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 38, 217.svg|72px]]XXX</span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 100, 155.svg|72px]]XXX</span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> n95a0k4cfcdi940eg4txpc4iwovisz0 2822226 2822223 2026-08-15T10:18:43Z Watchduck 137431 2822226 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 19, 236.svg|72px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">0101100</span><span class="dec">26</span></span></span> | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 200, 55.svg|72px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">0011010</span><span class="dec">44</span></span></span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (3, 5) 137, 118.svg|72px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">1011001</span><span 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display: inline-block; padding: 4px; border: 1px solid #ccc; } table.split-cycle span.epithet { display: block; font-size: 80%; margin-top: 3px; line-height: 1; } table.split-cycle span.bin { font-family: monospace; margin-right: 5px; color: #555; } table.split-cycle span.dec { display: inline-block; width: 2em; text-align: right; font-family: Arial; color: black; } ei1pb0vaku0pdyvb7jb63vw3n6rqwn9 10 331179 2822229 2026-08-15T11:03:31Z Watchduck 137431 Created page with "<templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (5, 5) 341, 682.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">111111111</span><span class="dec">511</span></span></span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude>" 2822229 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-10-cube vertex (5, 5) 341, 682.svg|87px]]<span class="epithet"><span 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cycle tables]] </noinclude>" 2822231 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Split cycle table/style.css" /> {| class="split-cycle" | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (4, 4) 51, 204.svg|72px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">0101010</span><span class="dec">42</span></span></span> |- | <span class="split">[[File:Hemi-8-cube vertex (4, 4) 102, 153.svg|72px]]<span class="epithet"><span class="bin">1010101</span><span class="dec">85</span></span></span> |}<noinclude> [[Category:Split cycle tables]] </noinclude> h42fsf86qggpfka7ku54laq4n1vlugo 3 331182 2822233 2026-08-15T11:07:06Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2822233 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Jshottt!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:07, 15 August 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} r1xjuk9wlsikaqjdnr6z98y53cs8yi2 3 331183 2822234 2026-08-15T11:07:22Z Jtneill 10242 Welcome 2822234 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Greg Philips!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:07, 15 August 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} dwttdhl4ji571jhvgu5dkygdr646m02